UPSC Insights SECURE SYNOPSIS : 28 June 2025
Kartavya Desk Staff
NOTE: Please remember that following ‘answers’ are NOT ‘model answers’. They are NOT synopsis too if we go by definition of the term. What we are providing is content that both meets demand of the question and at the same
General Studies – 1
Q1. The vernacular press served as both a catalyst and a mirror of nationalist consciousness in colonial India. Comment. (10 M)
Introduction The vernacular press became a potent medium of political awakening, spreading nationalist ideas to the masses and simultaneously reflecting the evolution of the freedom struggle across India.
Role as a catalyst of nationalist consciousness
• Dissemination of anti-colonial thought: The vernacular press translated nationalist arguments into local idioms for wider reach. Eg: Kesari (1881) simplified Tilak’s call for Swaraj for rural Maharashtra audiences.
• Eg: Kesari (1881) simplified Tilak’s call for Swaraj for rural Maharashtra audiences.
• Mobilisation during economic protests: It drove public participation in movements such as Swadeshi and boycott. Eg: Bengalee and Jugantar popularised the 1905 Swadeshi boycott post Bengal Partition.
• Eg: Bengalee and Jugantar popularised the 1905 Swadeshi boycott post Bengal Partition.
• Promotion of cultural pride and linguistic identity: It linked regional cultural pride with pan-Indian nationalist aspirations. Eg: Swadesamitran (Tamil) promoted Tamil linguistic pride within nationalist discourse.
• Eg: Swadesamitran (Tamil) promoted Tamil linguistic pride within nationalist discourse.
• Platform for early nationalist leadership: It provided space for emerging leaders and thinkers absent in colonial-controlled media. Eg: Amrita Bazar Patrika amplified Surendranath Banerjee’s anti-colonial arguments.
• Eg: Amrita Bazar Patrika amplified Surendranath Banerjee’s anti-colonial arguments.
Role as a mirror of nationalist consciousness
• Reflecting phases of the freedom struggle: It recorded the shift from moderate petitions to mass movements and resistance. Eg: Prabuddha Bharat covered Non-Cooperation (1920) and Civil Disobedience (1930) phases.
• Eg: Prabuddha Bharat covered Non-Cooperation (1920) and Civil Disobedience (1930) phases.
• Highlighting regional dimensions: It showcased unique regional articulations of nationalism. Eg: Kesari documented Maharashtra’s agrarian participation during the Home Rule Movement (1916).
• Eg: Kesari documented Maharashtra’s agrarian participation during the Home Rule Movement (1916).
• Exposing colonial repression: The vernacular press laid bare the colonial government’s fear of rising Indian political consciousness. Eg: The Vernacular Press Act (1878) faced resistance by editors like Surendranath Banerjee.
• Eg: The Vernacular Press Act (1878) faced resistance by editors like Surendranath Banerjee.
• Capturing growth of public consciousness: It reflected the increasing politicisation of Indian society, especially the middle class. Eg: Sudharak (1890s) engaged readers with debates on democracy, caste reform, and self-rule.
• Eg: Sudharak (1890s) engaged readers with debates on democracy, caste reform, and self-rule.
Conclusion By shaping and reflecting Indian nationalist consciousness, the vernacular press left a legacy of democratic engagement. Strengthening media freedom today is key to upholding this foundational role in India’s democracy.
Q2. Why is inland water transport underutilised in Indian cities despite having geographical potential? How can urban planning unlock this mode for sustainable mobility? (10 M)
Introduction Despite over 14,500 km of navigable waterways, inland water transport (IWT) remains grossly underused in Indian cities due to systemic, infrastructural, and planning failures—turning a geographic advantage into a missed opportunity.
Reasons for underutilisation of inland water transport
• Seasonal river depth variability: Inconsistent flow and siltation make year-round navigation difficult. Eg: Ganga in Patna becomes shallow during dry months due to high sediment load (IWAI Feasibility Study, 2024).
• Eg: Ganga in Patna becomes shallow during dry months due to high sediment load (IWAI Feasibility Study, 2024).
• Poor infrastructure and terminals: Absence of modern docks, ticketing, and safety amenities deters passengers. Eg: Varanasi and Patna ferry terminals on NW-1 lack basic infrastructure despite high commuter potential (JMVP Status Report, 2023).
• Eg: Varanasi and Patna ferry terminals on NW-1 lack basic infrastructure despite high commuter potential (JMVP Status Report, 2023).
• Fragmented governance and lack of coordination: Multiple agencies delay clearances and operations. Eg: CAG Report 2022 flagged coordination failure between IWAI and state urban bodies as a major delay factor.
• Eg: CAG Report 2022 flagged coordination failure between IWAI and state urban bodies as a major delay factor.
• Lack of integration with urban transport: IWT often functions in isolation without multimodal linkages. Eg: Kolkata ferry services have minimal connection to metro or bus networks (MoHUA Urban Mobility Review, 2022).
• Eg: Kolkata ferry services have minimal connection to metro or bus networks (MoHUA Urban Mobility Review, 2022).
• Safety and regulatory vacuum: Unorganised operations lack standardised safety and fare mechanisms. Eg: The 2021 Assam ferry capsize revealed absence of safety audits and crew training.
• Eg: The 2021 Assam ferry capsize revealed absence of safety audits and crew training.
Urban planning strategies to unlock IWT for sustainable mobility
• Integrate IWT into city masterplans: Waterways must be part of comprehensive urban transport strategy. Eg: Patna Master Plan 2041 includes 16 proposed jetties linked with road and metro corridors (BUIDCo Draft, 2024).
• Eg: Patna Master Plan 2041 includes 16 proposed jetties linked with road and metro corridors (BUIDCo Draft, 2024).
• Adopt transit-oriented riverfront development: Promote residential and commercial hubs near terminals. Eg: Kochi Water Metro TOD zones include walkable public spaces, jetties, and retail (KMRL Annual Report, 2024).
• Eg: Kochi Water Metro TOD zones include walkable public spaces, jetties, and retail (KMRL Annual Report, 2024).
• Invest in clean vessel technology: Use electric or hybrid boats for pollution-free transport. Eg: Under Sagarmala, the JMVP has procured electric catamarans for river cities (Ministry of Ports, 2023).
• Eg: Under Sagarmala, the JMVP has procured electric catamarans for river cities (Ministry of Ports, 2023).
• Establish single-window river transport cells: Ensure coordination, licensing, and safety enforcement. Eg: Delhi’s proposed Yamuna Mobility Cell aims to unify waterway planning under one regulatory roof.
• Eg: Delhi’s proposed Yamuna Mobility Cell aims to unify waterway planning under one regulatory roof.
• Drive behavioural change and digital adoption: Use fare integration, apps, and awareness campaigns. Eg: MyBharat App in Kochi offers digital ticketing and incentives for eco-friendly water commute (MoHUA, 2024).
• Eg: MyBharat App in Kochi offers digital ticketing and incentives for eco-friendly water commute (MoHUA, 2024).
Conclusion Waterways can be India’s next-generation urban mobility frontier—but only if rivers are planned as infrastructure assets, not geographical constraints. Strategic planning, clean tech, and integration will be key to realising this shift.
Q3. Explain the concept of evaporative demand. Analyse the factors driving its recent rise across Indian agro-ecosystems. Evaluate its implications for sustainable water resource management. (15 M)
Introduction With intensifying climate change, evaporative demand has emerged as a crucial indicator of how much water the atmosphere seeks to pull from land and vegetation, directly influencing irrigation needs and crop resilience.
Concept of evaporative demand
• Definition of evaporative demand: It represents the atmosphere’s potential to evaporate water from land and transpire it through plants if water is sufficiently available. Eg: Concept highlighted in Earth’s Future (2025) by Kukal and Hobbins as a driver of “thirstwaves”
• Eg: Concept highlighted in Earth’s Future (2025) by Kukal and Hobbins as a driver of “thirstwaves”
• Measurement method: Calculated through standardised short-crop evapotranspiration (ET0), integrating temperature, humidity, solar radiation, and wind. Eg: Used in FAO’s Penman-Monteith Equation, widely adopted in irrigation planning manuals (FAO 56 Guidelines)
• Eg: Used in FAO’s Penman-Monteith Equation, widely adopted in irrigation planning manuals (FAO 56 Guidelines)
Factors driving recent rise in Indian agro-ecosystems
• Rising ambient temperatures: Higher surface temperatures increase atmospheric capacity to hold and demand moisture. Eg: IMD 2024 Report recorded all-India mean land temperature rise by 0.65°C since 1990
• Eg: IMD 2024 Report recorded all-India mean land temperature rise by 0.65°C since 1990
• Declining relative humidity: Drying atmosphere boosts evaporative gradients between land and air. Eg: IIT-Roorkee and NIH study (2022) reported significant humidity decline in northwest and central India
• Eg: IIT-Roorkee and NIH study (2022) reported significant humidity decline in northwest and central India
• Increased solar radiation: Reduction in atmospheric aerosols and clearer skies enhance solar radiation intensity. Eg: Journal of Cleaner Production (2022) noted enhanced radiation in Indo-Gangetic plains post COVID-19 lockdown
• Eg: Journal of Cleaner Production (2022) noted enhanced radiation in Indo-Gangetic plains post COVID-19 lockdown
• Changing wind patterns: Higher wind speeds facilitate faster evaporation rates from exposed soil and crop surfaces. Eg: IITM Pune (2023) identified rising pre-monsoon wind anomalies in western Rajasthan
• Eg: IITM Pune (2023) identified rising pre-monsoon wind anomalies in western Rajasthan
• Land use change and crop intensification: Expansion of water-intensive crops in semi-arid zones raises cumulative evaporative demand. Eg: NITI Aayog 2023 Report highlighted paddy-wheat cycle expansion in Punjab and Haryana
• Eg: NITI Aayog 2023 Report highlighted paddy-wheat cycle expansion in Punjab and Haryana
Implications for sustainable water resource management
• Increased irrigation demand: Farmers require more frequent irrigation to compensate for higher evaporative losses. Eg: Punjab Water Resources Management Authority (2024) reported 15% rise in groundwater extraction
• Eg: Punjab Water Resources Management Authority (2024) reported 15% rise in groundwater extraction
• Stress on groundwater resources: Unsustainable withdrawal depletes aquifers faster than recharge rates. Eg: CGWB 2024 assessment found 78% of monitored wells in north India showing declining trends
• Eg: CGWB 2024 assessment found 78% of monitored wells in north India showing declining trends
• Altered cropping calendars: Shifting evaporative patterns necessitate changes in sowing dates and varietal selection. Eg: ICAR advisory (2024) recommended preponing kharif paddy sowing by 10–15 days in eastern UP
• Eg: ICAR advisory (2024) recommended preponing kharif paddy sowing by 10–15 days in eastern UP
• Need for efficient irrigation: Promotes adoption of micro-irrigation and precision farming to minimise water wastage. Eg: PMKSY (2023) achieved 14.7 million hectares under micro-irrigation, led by Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh
• Eg: PMKSY (2023) achieved 14.7 million hectares under micro-irrigation, led by Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh
• Regional water stress differentials: Rising evaporative demand is uneven, requiring region-specific adaptation strategies. Eg: IIT-Roorkee study (2022) identified Western Himalayas and northwest plains as high-risk zones
• Eg: IIT-Roorkee study (2022) identified Western Himalayas and northwest plains as high-risk zones
Conclusion Mainstreaming evaporative demand monitoring into India’s farm advisories can revolutionise water management. Proactive strategies combining climate-smart agriculture and demand-side efficiency are vital for ensuring long-term water sustainability.
General Studies – 2
Q4. The 74th Amendment sought to institutionalise urban decentralisation. Critically analyse why this objective remains only partially fulfilled. Examine recent trends in sta8te-level interventions. Suggest pathways for effective urban federalism. (15 M)
Introduction India is witnessing rapid urbanisation, yet its governance architecture has not evolved in pace with this transformation. The 74th Amendment sought to create empowered, democratic urban local bodies, but its objectives remain far from realised due to systemic, political, and fiscal barriers.
Why the objective of urban decentralisation remains partially fulfilled
• Lack of fiscal autonomy: Despite constitutional intent, ULBs remain financially dependent on state and central grants, unable to raise sufficient own revenues to plan and execute priorities independently. Eg: As per RBI Report on Municipal Finances 2022, ULBs contribute merely 0.6% of national GDP, and property tax collections in India stand at just 0.2% of GDP, far below global benchmarks.
• Eg: As per RBI Report on Municipal Finances 2022, ULBs contribute merely 0.6% of national GDP, and property tax collections in India stand at just 0.2% of GDP, far below global benchmarks.
• Weak functional devolution: Many critical functions listed in the 12th Schedule remain with state departments or parastatal agencies, severely limiting municipal control over urban services. Eg: CAG Report 2023 highlighted that in Maharashtra and Punjab, core functions like water supply, sewerage, and urban planning are still largely managed by state-level boards rather than elected ULBs.
• Eg: CAG Report 2023 highlighted that in Maharashtra and Punjab, core functions like water supply, sewerage, and urban planning are still largely managed by state-level boards rather than elected ULBs.
• Absence of empowered political leadership: Most cities lack directly elected, empowered mayors with full executive authority and clear accountability to citizens. Eg: Delhi, Mumbai, and Chennai continue with ceremonial mayors, with executive powers vested in state-appointed commissioners, violating the spirit of democratic local governance.
• Eg: Delhi, Mumbai, and Chennai continue with ceremonial mayors, with executive powers vested in state-appointed commissioners, violating the spirit of democratic local governance.
• State government dominance through discretionary powers: States often exercise excessive administrative and legislative control, undermining the autonomy of ULBs. Eg: The creation of Greater Bengaluru Authority (GBA), 2025, chaired by the Chief Minister, has sidelined the BBMP, reducing the role of elected councillors.
• Eg: The creation of Greater Bengaluru Authority (GBA), 2025, chaired by the Chief Minister, has sidelined the BBMP, reducing the role of elected councillors.
• Institutional and capacity deficits: ULBs often lack professional staff, planning expertise, and systems to manage modern urban challenges. Eg: According to MoHUA 2023 Report, over 70% of ULBs in India lack even one full-time qualified urban planner, resulting in ad-hoc and poorly coordinated urban development.
• Eg: According to MoHUA 2023 Report, over 70% of ULBs in India lack even one full-time qualified urban planner, resulting in ad-hoc and poorly coordinated urban development.
Recent trends in state-level interventions
• Creation of supra-municipal bodies: States are forming umbrella authorities or metropolitan bodies that bypass ULBs, consolidating power under state executives. Eg: GBA in Karnataka (2025) is the latest example, replicating similar models like HMDA in Hyderabad and MMRDA in Mumbai.
• Eg: GBA in Karnataka (2025) is the latest example, replicating similar models like HMDA in Hyderabad and MMRDA in Mumbai.
• Use of SPVs to bypass elected bodies: Under centrally sponsored missions, states are setting up SPVs to implement projects, weakening the role of municipal institutions. Eg: Under Smart Cities Mission, as of March 2024, SPVs have been used in 97 cities, with CEOs often being state-appointed officers, not accountable to local citizens.
• Eg: Under Smart Cities Mission, as of March 2024, SPVs have been used in 97 cities, with CEOs often being state-appointed officers, not accountable to local citizens.
• Shift towards project-based, discretionary funding: New funding models like Urban Challenge Fund favour metros and Tier-1 cities and promote state-driven projects, side-lining ULBs’ own priorities. Eg: The ₹1 lakh crore Urban Challenge Fund 2025, backed by the ADB’s $10 billion programme, focuses largely on metro systems and rapid transit corridors, with little space for participatory budgeting.
• Eg: The ₹1 lakh crore Urban Challenge Fund 2025, backed by the ADB’s $10 billion programme, focuses largely on metro systems and rapid transit corridors, with little space for participatory budgeting.
• Politicisation of ULBs through appointment and control: States often delay elections, interfere in appointments, or use nomination powers to influence ULBs. Eg: Chandigarh MC elections in 2024 saw significant delays over nomination disputes between state-appointed administrators and elected representatives.
• Eg: Chandigarh MC elections in 2024 saw significant delays over nomination disputes between state-appointed administrators and elected representatives.
• Limited functional autonomy over land and planning: Key areas like land use regulation, transport, and environmental planning are still managed by parastatals or state-level agencies. Eg: In Delhi, the DDA continues to control land-use planning and building norms, even under Delhi Master Plan 2041, bypassing the elected Municipal Corporation of Delhi.
• Eg: In Delhi, the DDA continues to control land-use planning and building norms, even under Delhi Master Plan 2041, bypassing the elected Municipal Corporation of Delhi.
Pathways for effective urban federalism
• Enhance fiscal autonomy: ULBs must be allowed greater own-revenue generation and receive predictable formula-based fiscal transfers. Eg: The 15th Finance Commission (2020-25) recommended ₹1.21 lakh crore in tied and untied grants, which should be made unconditional to enhance local flexibility.
• Eg: The 15th Finance Commission (2020-25) recommended ₹1.21 lakh crore in tied and untied grants, which should be made unconditional to enhance local flexibility.
• Full implementation of 12th Schedule: All 18 functions should be legislatively devolved with clear accountability. Eg: 2nd ARC on Local Governance (2007) strongly recommended that functional devolution must be mandatory, not left to state discretion.
• Eg: 2nd ARC on Local Governance (2007) strongly recommended that functional devolution must be mandatory, not left to state discretion.
• Empowerment of mayors and councillors: Major cities should have directly elected mayors with fixed tenure, executive authority, and transparent oversight. Eg: Fourth Delhi Finance Commission (2021) proposed greater executive powers to the Mayor to enable accountable governance in Delhi.
• Eg: Fourth Delhi Finance Commission (2021) proposed greater executive powers to the Mayor to enable accountable governance in Delhi.
• Statutory Metropolitan Planning Committees: Article 243ZE provides for MPCs with representation from elected bodies, which should be activated in all metros. Eg: Kolkata MPC is still weak and consultative; reforms could learn from London’s Greater London Authority, which integrates planning and elected accountability.
• Eg: Kolkata MPC is still weak and consultative; reforms could learn from London’s Greater London Authority, which integrates planning and elected accountability.
• Creation of Indian Urban Service: A specialised cadre of professional urban administrators and planners should be institutionalised to strengthen municipal governance. Eg: The NITI Aayog Urban India 2047 Vision Document (2023) recommends building an Indian Urban Service akin to IAS or IFS for technical capacity.
• Eg: The NITI Aayog Urban India 2047 Vision Document (2023) recommends building an Indian Urban Service akin to IAS or IFS for technical capacity.
Conclusion Urban India’s future depends on genuine democratic decentralisation, empowered and accountable local governments, and professionalised capacity — only then can Indian cities meet the aspirations of their citizens in the 21st century.
Q5. Vulnerable groups often face ‘institutional invisibility’ in governance structures. Explain this idea. How can institutions be redesigned to recognise and include the undocumented and marginalised? (10 M)
Introduction
Governance systems that rely solely on formal documentation often fail to acknowledge the lived presence of undocumented individuals, leaving them invisible to state services and democratic protections.
Meaning and causes of institutional invisibility
• Exclusion from services due to lack of formal ID: Absence of Aadhaar, ration cards, or birth certificates leads to denial of entitlements. Eg: Homeless citizens in Mumbai were excluded from COVID relief and shelters due to lack of address proof (TISS Report, 2021).
• Eg: Homeless citizens in Mumbai were excluded from COVID relief and shelters due to lack of address proof (TISS Report, 2021).
• Digitalisation without inclusion safeguards: Digital-first governance marginalises those without internet access or tech literacy. Eg: Nomadic tribes in Rajasthan were denied PDS and pension access due to biometric mismatches in Aadhaar (NHRC Report, 2023).
• Eg: Nomadic tribes in Rajasthan were denied PDS and pension access due to biometric mismatches in Aadhaar (NHRC Report, 2023).
• Rejection of community-based or oral identity proofs: Institutions overlook locally validated documents and oral histories. Eg: In Assam NRC, panchayat certificates issued to married women were deemed invalid despite SC guidance (Rahima Khatun v. State of Assam, 2021).
• Eg: In Assam NRC, panchayat certificates issued to married women were deemed invalid despite SC guidance (Rahima Khatun v. State of Assam, 2021).
• Data invisibility translates to policy invisibility: Absence in official datasets leads to under-targeting in schemes. Eg: Seasonal migrant workers were excluded from relief during the 2020 lockdown due to non-registration in NSS or SECC (ILO–India Migration Report, 2022).
• Eg: Seasonal migrant workers were excluded from relief during the 2020 lockdown due to non-registration in NSS or SECC (ILO–India Migration Report, 2022).
• Presumption of illegality over lived citizenship: Poor and stateless populations are often criminalised despite generational presence. Eg: In Jaynab Bibi case (2025), a woman was declared foreigner despite decades of residence in Assam, later stayed by SC (SC Order, June 2025).
• Eg: In Jaynab Bibi case (2025), a woman was declared foreigner despite decades of residence in Assam, later stayed by SC (SC Order, June 2025).
How institutions can be redesigned for inclusion
• Accept multi-layered identity proofs: Allow for alternative documents like self-declarations, local body certificates, and community attestations. Eg: Rajasthan’s Bhamashah Scheme and SECC 2011 accepted gram panchayat–verified self-declarations for welfare inclusion (Planning Commission, 2014).
• Eg: Rajasthan’s Bhamashah Scheme and SECC 2011 accepted gram panchayat–verified self-declarations for welfare inclusion (Planning Commission, 2014).
• Conduct human rights audits in exclusion-prone systems: Periodic review of exclusion in welfare delivery by independent bodies. Eg: SC in Swaraj Abhiyan v. Union of India (2016) directed states to review PDS and MGNREGA exclusion patterns.
• Eg: SC in Swaraj Abhiyan v. Union of India (2016) directed states to review PDS and MGNREGA exclusion patterns.
• Strengthen decentralised grievance redressal platforms: Community-based helpdesks and multilingual, mobile appeals units can reduce exclusion. Eg: Delhi Urban Shelter Improvement Board (DUSIB) uses community volunteers to link slum dwellers with welfare schemes.
• Eg: Delhi Urban Shelter Improvement Board (DUSIB) uses community volunteers to link slum dwellers with welfare schemes.
• Include vulnerable voices in institutional design: Representation in governance boards and gram sabhas enables inclusion from within. Eg: Forest Rights Act, 2006 mandates ST and forest-dweller participation in land claims decisions (MoTA Report, 2023).
• Eg: Forest Rights Act, 2006 mandates ST and forest-dweller participation in land claims decisions (MoTA Report, 2023).
• Ensure portability and presence-based access to welfare: Decouple entitlements from fixed residence or state-bound identity. Eg: One Nation One Ration Card (2020) enabled migrant workers to access food grains anywhere in India (NITI Aayog Evaluation, 2022).
• Eg: One Nation One Ration Card (2020) enabled migrant workers to access food grains anywhere in India (NITI Aayog Evaluation, 2022).
Conclusion
A democracy must be capable of seeing and serving even those without papers. Designing institutions for dignity, flexibility, and proximity is vital for inclusive citizenship.
Q6. What are the key institutional roles of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in the global nuclear governance architecture? How do recent conflicts involving nuclear sites challenge these roles? (10 M)
Introduction Founded in 1957, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) anchors the global nuclear governance framework by promoting peaceful uses of nuclear energy while ensuring non-proliferation. Recent attacks on Iran’s nuclear sites (2025) highlight emerging challenges to its role.
Key institutional roles of the IAEA
• Verification of non-proliferation commitments: IAEA conducts safeguards to verify civilian nuclear material is not diverted to military use. Eg: IAEA verified Iran’s nuclear programme under JCPOA until US withdrawal in 2018 (IAEA Annual Report 2023)
• Eg: IAEA verified Iran’s nuclear programme under JCPOA until US withdrawal in 2018 (IAEA Annual Report 2023)
• Promotion of peaceful nuclear technology: Facilitates the use of nuclear science in energy, agriculture, medicine. Eg: Rays of Hope initiative (2022) for cancer therapy expansion in Africa
• Eg: Rays of Hope initiative (2022) for cancer therapy expansion in Africa
• Nuclear safety and security standards: Sets global benchmarks on nuclear safety, waste management, and physical security. Eg: IAEA’s 2024 guidelines for Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)
• Eg: IAEA’s 2024 guidelines for Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)
• Technical assistance and capacity building: Provides training and equipment to member states for peaceful nuclear applications. Eg: IAEA assistance to Ukraine (2022) to maintain nuclear safety amid war (IAEA Board Brief, 2022)
• Eg: IAEA assistance to Ukraine (2022) to maintain nuclear safety amid war (IAEA Board Brief, 2022)
• Early warning and emergency response: Coordinates international monitoring and response to nuclear emergencies. Eg: IAEA’s rapid radiation monitoring after Iran site attacks (2025).
• Eg: IAEA’s rapid radiation monitoring after Iran site attacks (2025).
How recent conflicts challenge these roles
• Restricted site access: Active conflicts obstruct IAEA teams from conducting inspections. Eg: IAEA inspectors blocked from Fordow and Natanz after Iran strikes (2025)
• Eg: IAEA inspectors blocked from Fordow and Natanz after Iran strikes (2025)
• Unaccounted nuclear material risk: Potential diversion of nuclear materials during evacuations or attacks. Eg: Iran’s relocation of 400 kg enriched uranium to undisclosed sites (2025)
• Eg: Iran’s relocation of 400 kg enriched uranium to undisclosed sites (2025)
• Threat to inspector safety: Deployment of IAEA staff in warzones exposes them to physical harm. Eg: IAEA withdrawal of staff from Zaporizhzhia NPP in Ukraine (2023)
• Eg: IAEA withdrawal of staff from Zaporizhzhia NPP in Ukraine (2023)
• Weakening verification credibility: Delayed or incomplete reporting erodes trust in IAEA findings. Eg: IAEA delayed assessments after Iran nuclear site attacks (2025) leading to UN debates
• Eg: IAEA delayed assessments after Iran nuclear site attacks (2025) leading to UN debates
• Politicisation of IAEA role: Geopolitical rivalries may compromise IAEA neutrality and credibility. Eg: US-Iran tensions stalling IAEA Board consensus on Iran inspections (2025).
• Eg: US-Iran tensions stalling IAEA Board consensus on Iran inspections (2025).
Conclusion To safeguard its global nuclear governance role, the IAEA must be empowered with enhanced legal backing, secured access rights, and stronger multilateral support for impartial operations even amidst conflicts.
General Studies – 3
Q7. What are the current trends in States’ non-tax revenue mobilisation. Analyse the reasons for its decline. Suggest measures to improve the composition and growth of non-tax revenues. (15 M)
Introduction: In recent years, States’ non-tax revenue — critical for fiscal autonomy — has steadily declined due to inefficiencies, centralisation, and weak policy focus, deepening dependence on Central transfers.
Current trends in States’ non-tax revenue mobilisation
• Declining share in total revenue: The share of non-tax revenue is projected to fall below 24% of States’ revenue in FY25, lowest in over two decades, showing systemic weakening. Eg: Tamil Nadu’s non-tax revenue fell from 27% in FY17 to 21% in FY24, despite steady growth in State expenditure (TN Budget 2024-25).
• Eg: Tamil Nadu’s non-tax revenue fell from 27% in FY17 to 21% in FY24, despite steady growth in State expenditure (TN Budget 2024-25).
• Rising dependence on Central grants: 65-70% of non-tax revenue is now composed of Central grants, up from 55-60% in 2000s, reducing States’ financial flexibility. Eg: In West Bengal’s FY25 Budget, more than 68% of non-tax revenue was sourced from grants linked to flagship Central schemes (State Finance Dept 2025).
• Eg: In West Bengal’s FY25 Budget, more than 68% of non-tax revenue was sourced from grants linked to flagship Central schemes (State Finance Dept 2025).
• Low PSU profitability: Dividends and profits from State PSUs continue below 1% of total non-tax revenue, signalling deep inefficiencies and poor asset utilisation. Eg: Karnataka ESCOMs and Kerala Financial Corporation contributed less than ₹100 crore dividends in FY24 despite combined operational budgets exceeding ₹50,000 crore.
• Eg: Karnataka ESCOMs and Kerala Financial Corporation contributed less than ₹100 crore dividends in FY24 despite combined operational budgets exceeding ₹50,000 crore.
• Stagnant earnings from economic services: Revenues from transport, energy, irrigation, and other services remain under 30% of non-tax income in most States. Eg: Delhi Transport Corporation’s operating loss of ₹1,650 crore in FY24 wiped out service revenues despite fare increases (Delhi Budget 2025).
• Eg: Delhi Transport Corporation’s operating loss of ₹1,650 crore in FY24 wiped out service revenues despite fare increases (Delhi Budget 2025).
• Falling interest income: Interest receipts on loans and advances now form under 5% of non-tax revenue, reflecting reduced lending to State PSUs and agencies. Eg: Madhya Pradesh’s interest receipts declined to ₹1,024 crore in FY25 BE, down from ₹1,870 crore in FY15, showing lower recoveries.
• Eg: Madhya Pradesh’s interest receipts declined to ₹1,024 crore in FY25 BE, down from ₹1,870 crore in FY15, showing lower recoveries.
Reasons for decline in non-tax revenue
• Inefficient PSU governance: Many State PSUs suffer from outdated technology, poor management, and politicised boards, eroding profitability. Eg: Bihar State Road Transport Corporation continues to incur over ₹500 crore annual losses despite two major restructuring plans since 2018 (Bihar Transport Dept).
• Eg: Bihar State Road Transport Corporation continues to incur over ₹500 crore annual losses despite two major restructuring plans since 2018 (Bihar Transport Dept).
• Politically distorted user charges: Tariffs for public services are kept artificially low for populist reasons, undermining cost recovery. Eg: Punjab’s free electricity subsidy for farmers causes an annual revenue shortfall of nearly ₹10,000 crore in the power sector (Punjab Power Dept 2025).
• Eg: Punjab’s free electricity subsidy for farmers causes an annual revenue shortfall of nearly ₹10,000 crore in the power sector (Punjab Power Dept 2025).
• Delayed and weak asset monetisation: Poorly structured PPPs, land disputes, and lack of inventory lead to underutilisation of government assets. Eg: Maharashtra’s FY24 asset monetisation yield was only ₹3,100 crore, less than 40% of its ₹8,000 crore target (Maharashtra Finance Dept 2025).
• Eg: Maharashtra’s FY24 asset monetisation yield was only ₹3,100 crore, less than 40% of its ₹8,000 crore target (Maharashtra Finance Dept 2025).
• Litigation on royalties and outdated rates: Legal delays and political hesitation prevent timely revision of royalty rates on minerals, water, and forest produce. Eg: Odisha’s iron ore royalty revision, pending since 2019 due to ongoing court cases, led to foregone revenue of ₹1,500 crore per annum (Odisha Mines Dept).
• Eg: Odisha’s iron ore royalty revision, pending since 2019 due to ongoing court cases, led to foregone revenue of ₹1,500 crore per annum (Odisha Mines Dept).
• Fiscal erosion post-GST: Centralisation of indirect taxation under GST limits States’ ability to levy compensatory sectoral fees and cesses. Eg: Kerala’s 2023 attempt to introduce an eco-environment fee was blocked by GST Council, impacting local environmental funding (Kerala Budget 2024).
• Eg: Kerala’s 2023 attempt to introduce an eco-environment fee was blocked by GST Council, impacting local environmental funding (Kerala Budget 2024).
Measures to improve composition and growth of non-tax revenues
• Reforming PSU governance: Strategic disinvestment, professional management, and transparent reporting to improve returns and accountability. Eg: Tamil Nadu’s 2024 TANGEDCO restructuring, supported by ADB, targets ₹9,000 crore loss reduction over five years (TN Power Sector Reform Plan 2024).
• Eg: Tamil Nadu’s 2024 TANGEDCO restructuring, supported by ADB, targets ₹9,000 crore loss reduction over five years (TN Power Sector Reform Plan 2024).
• Rationalising user charges: Regular indexation of fees for services like water supply, transport, and health to inflation and service quality. Eg: Karnataka’s 2023 Urban Water Pricing Framework mandates biennial revision of tariffs based on CPI and service cost (Karnataka Water Supply Act 2023).
• Eg: Karnataka’s 2023 Urban Water Pricing Framework mandates biennial revision of tariffs based on CPI and service cost (Karnataka Water Supply Act 2023).
• Accelerating asset monetisation: Creation of GIS-based asset inventories and state-level PPP cells to fast-track monetisation pipelines. Eg: Maharashtra’s 2025 Urban Asset Monetisation Policy targets ₹10,000 crore over five years from metro land parcels and surplus urban land (Maha Budget 2025).
• Eg: Maharashtra’s 2025 Urban Asset Monetisation Policy targets ₹10,000 crore over five years from metro land parcels and surplus urban land (Maha Budget 2025).
• Establishing independent royalty boards: De-politicised boards to review and update royalties regularly and resolve disputes faster. Eg: Chhattisgarh’s 2024 Mineral Royalty Board updated rates within six months, adding ₹1,200 crore to FY25 revenues (Chhattisgarh Mines Dept).
• Eg: Chhattisgarh’s 2024 Mineral Royalty Board updated rates within six months, adding ₹1,200 crore to FY25 revenues (Chhattisgarh Mines Dept).
• Institutionalising revenue policy: Creation of Revenue Enhancement Commissions or Revenue Policy Cells for continuous policy innovation. Eg: Kerala Finance Commission 2023 proposed a permanent Revenue Policy Cell under Finance Dept to design dynamic non-tax revenue strategies (Kerala FC Report 2023).
• Eg: Kerala Finance Commission 2023 proposed a permanent Revenue Policy Cell under Finance Dept to design dynamic non-tax revenue strategies (Kerala FC Report 2023).
Conclusion: For a resilient and fiscally autonomous federal structure, States must aggressively reform and innovate in non-tax revenue policy — enabling a sustainable, diversified revenue base in line with their developmental aspirations.
Q8. Modern warfare leaves invisible yet far-reaching environmental scars. Analyse this statement with reference to ongoing conflicts. Evaluate its impact on global climate goals. (10 M)
Introduction Warfare today is not just a human tragedy but also a growing ecological disaster, with its footprint extending from the stratosphere to the oceans — undermining global climate ambitions.
Invisible yet far-reaching environmental scars
• Military emissions and unaccounted GHGs: Large-scale GHG emissions from fuel use, vehicle fleets, and heavy machinery during war go unrecorded Eg: Global militaries emit ~5.5% of global GHGs, more than civil aviation and shipping combined.
• Eg: Global militaries emit ~5.5% of global GHGs, more than civil aviation and shipping combined.
• Ozone depletion from missile warfare: Missiles and interceptors release black carbon, aluminium oxide and reactive chemicals that damage the ozone layer Eg: During the 2025 Israel-Iran conflict, missile exchanges released pollutants causing potential ozone thinning.
• Eg: During the 2025 Israel-Iran conflict, missile exchanges released pollutants causing potential ozone thinning.
• Risk of nuclear contamination: Destruction of nuclear facilities can lead to radiation leaks into soil, air, and groundwater — with long-term bioaccumulation Eg: Natanz uranium facility (Iran) damaged in June 2025; IAEA reported contamination risks though external radiation levels remained low (IAEA).
• Eg: Natanz uranium facility (Iran) damaged in June 2025; IAEA reported contamination risks though external radiation levels remained low (IAEA).
• Marine and coastal ecosystem damage: Bombing near refineries or ports leads to hydrocarbon leakage, harming coastal biodiversity Eg: Bazan refinery fire (Israel, June 2025) threatened marine ecosystems of the Gulf due to oil and chemical runoff.
• Eg: Bazan refinery fire (Israel, June 2025) threatened marine ecosystems of the Gulf due to oil and chemical runoff.
• Soil and groundwater contamination from oil fires: Oil depot fires release toxic particulate matter, VOCs, dioxins — contaminating local soils and aquifers Eg: Tehran Oil Refinery fire (2025) polluted air, land and water, trapping pollutants in Tehran’s geographical basin (Conflict and Environment Observatory, 2025).
• Eg: Tehran Oil Refinery fire (2025) polluted air, land and water, trapping pollutants in Tehran’s geographical basin (Conflict and Environment Observatory, 2025).
Impact on global climate goals
• Exclusion of war emissions in climate accounting: Wartime emissions are excluded from UNFCCC inventories, reducing transparency in global climate reporting Eg: Russia-Ukraine war (2022-25) released ~230 million tCO2e, yet is unreported in NDCs (GHG Accounting of War Initiative, 2025).
• Eg: Russia-Ukraine war (2022-25) released ~230 million tCO2e, yet is unreported in NDCs (GHG Accounting of War Initiative, 2025).
• Disruption of renewable energy transition: Attacks on clean energy infrastructure force a return to carbon-heavy fuels Eg: South Pars gas field (Iran) and Ukrainian wind and solar farms damaged during recent wars — delaying the energy transition (IEA reports, 2025).
• Eg: South Pars gas field (Iran) and Ukrainian wind and solar farms damaged during recent wars — delaying the energy transition (IEA reports, 2025).
• Military exemption loopholes in treaties: Kyoto Protocol (1997) exempted military GHGs; Paris Agreement (2015) made military reporting voluntary — creating accountability gaps Eg: Less than 10% of militaries currently disclose full GHG data (UNFCCC records, 2025).
• Eg: Less than 10% of militaries currently disclose full GHG data (UNFCCC records, 2025).
• Diversion of climate finance: Reconstruction after wars drains funds from climate mitigation/adaptation commitments Eg: The estimated $42 billion social cost of Russia-Ukraine war emissions (2025) may divert climate finance from vulnerable nations (GHG Initiative).
• Eg: The estimated $42 billion social cost of Russia-Ukraine war emissions (2025) may divert climate finance from vulnerable nations (GHG Initiative).
• Increased regional climate vulnerability: War zones suffer compounded environmental degradation, weakening climate resilience Eg: Gaza conflict (2024-25) emitted 9 million tCO2e, with additional ecosystem damage — amplifying local climate risks (War on Climate report, 2025).
• Eg: Gaza conflict (2024-25) emitted 9 million tCO2e, with additional ecosystem damage — amplifying local climate risks (War on Climate report, 2025).
Conclusion Without including the invisible emissions of warfare, global efforts toward net-zero targets risk failure. It is imperative to embed war-related emissions into international climate governance frameworks.
General Studies – 4
Q9. “Ethical parenting forms the foundation of an ethical society”. Discuss ethical responsibilities of parents. Analyse how their failure affects larger social values. (10 M)
Introduction A child’s first lessons in empathy, justice and responsibility come from home. Ethical parenting fosters the moral fibre of citizens, making it essential for building an ethical society.
Ethical responsibilities of parents
• Ensuring emotional safety and nurturing environment: Parents must provide a violence-free home, supporting emotional well-being and self-esteem. Eg: UNICEF Innocenti Report Card 2024 highlights that children exposed to domestic violence are 4 times more prone to future aggressive behaviour.
• Eg: UNICEF Innocenti Report Card 2024 highlights that children exposed to domestic violence are 4 times more prone to future aggressive behaviour.
• Modelling empathy, compassion and tolerance: Through everyday interactions, parents inculcate values of kindness and acceptance. Eg: Delhi Happiness Curriculum (2023) includes ‘parent circles’ that foster empathetic parenting, improving student behaviour.
• Eg: Delhi Happiness Curriculum (2023) includes ‘parent circles’ that foster empathetic parenting, improving student behaviour.
• Respecting child’s autonomy and dignity: Recognising children as individuals with rights builds confidence and moral judgement. Eg: Justice Verma Committee (2013) recommended promoting dignity and respect in child-rearing to counter gender-based discrimination.
• Eg: Justice Verma Committee (2013) recommended promoting dignity and respect in child-rearing to counter gender-based discrimination.
• Balancing expectations with emotional well-being: Academic pressures must be matched with understanding of the child’s capabilities and emotional needs. Eg: Sangli incident (2025) where coercive academic pressure and neglect led to fatal domestic violence.
• Eg: Sangli incident (2025) where coercive academic pressure and neglect led to fatal domestic violence.
• Fostering integrity, honesty and accountability: Parents’ behaviour in daily life shapes children’s understanding of civic duties and ethics. Eg: CBSE Parent-Teacher Guidelines (2024) emphasise parents’ role in modelling fairness and integrity.
• Eg: CBSE Parent-Teacher Guidelines (2024) emphasise parents’ role in modelling fairness and integrity.
Failure of ethical parenting and its impact on larger social values
• Perpetuation of violence and intolerance: Lack of ethical parenting normalises aggression, fuelling violence in society. Eg: NCRB Crime in India Report 2023 reported 15% rise in juvenile violence linked to abusive family environments.
• Eg: NCRB Crime in India Report 2023 reported 15% rise in juvenile violence linked to abusive family environments.
• Erosion of human dignity and rise of authoritarian attitudes: Harsh, controlling parenting undermines respect for individual dignity and promotes intolerance. Eg: UNESCO Global Education Monitoring Report 2023 linked authoritarian family norms to school bullying and adult authoritarianism.
• Eg: UNESCO Global Education Monitoring Report 2023 linked authoritarian family norms to school bullying and adult authoritarianism.
• Decline in civic responsibility: Children raised in unethical environments show weaker regard for legality and public good. Eg: Justice J.S. Verma Committee underlined family responsibility in shaping ethical, law-abiding citizens.
• Eg: Justice J.S. Verma Committee underlined family responsibility in shaping ethical, law-abiding citizens.
• Worsening mental health outcomes: Emotional neglect by parents contributes to anxiety, depression and alienation in youth. Eg: National Mental Health Survey 2024 (NIMHANS) reported 16% of adolescents experience distress due to family pressures.
• Eg: National Mental Health Survey 2024 (NIMHANS) reported 16% of adolescents experience distress due to family pressures.
• Breakdown of social trust and cohesion: Poor ethical upbringing reduces empathy and trust, fuelling societal fragmentation. Eg: OECD Social Capital Report 2023 identified family-based value deficits as key to declining interpersonal trust.
• Eg: OECD Social Capital Report 2023 identified family-based value deficits as key to declining interpersonal trust.
Conclusion The ethical culture of a society begins at home. Promoting parental counselling, empathy-based parenting and ethics education will ensure that tomorrow’s citizens uphold the highest moral values.
Q10. How does the erosion of familial responsibility towards vulnerable members reflect deeper ethical concerns in contemporary society? Analyse with examples. (10 M)
Introduction The increasing neglect of vulnerable family members, especially elderly and terminally ill, reflects not just personal moral failings but broader ethical decay in urbanising and individualistic societies.
How erosion of familial responsibility reflects deeper ethical concerns
• Breakdown of empathy and compassion: Weakening of intrinsic human values erodes emotional bonds in families. Eg: Abandonment of elderly cancer patient in Mumbai’s Aarey forest (2025), highlighting absence of familial empathy.
• Eg: Abandonment of elderly cancer patient in Mumbai’s Aarey forest (2025), highlighting absence of familial empathy.
• Rise of individualism over collectivist values: Shift towards self-interest undermines collective familial duties. Eg: Urban family trends in metros show declining care for dependent elderly, as per HelpAge India Report 2024
• Eg: Urban family trends in metros show declining care for dependent elderly, as per HelpAge India Report 2024
• Instrumental view of relationships: Familial bonds seen through utility, not unconditional care. Eg: Growing cases of property-related abandonment in Delhi and Bengaluru elderly homes.
• Eg: Growing cases of property-related abandonment in Delhi and Bengaluru elderly homes.
• Weakening intergenerational ethics: Lack of value transmission erodes moral obligations across generations. Eg: NCERT’s 2023 National Curriculum Framework flagged declining emphasis on respect for elderly in socialisation practices
• Eg: NCERT’s 2023 National Curriculum Framework flagged declining emphasis on respect for elderly in socialisation practices
• Societal normalisation of neglect: Public indifference enables neglect to go unchallenged. Eg: Mumbai Railway Station survey (2023) recorded rising cases of destitute elderly without public intervention.
• Eg: Mumbai Railway Station survey (2023) recorded rising cases of destitute elderly without public intervention.
What needs to be done
• Strengthen ethical education and civic values: Foster empathy and social responsibility through formal and informal learning. Eg: NEP 2020 promotes value-based education from early schooling (NEP 2020 Document)
• Eg: NEP 2020 promotes value-based education from early schooling (NEP 2020 Document)
• Reinforce legal accountability: Implement stricter enforcement of Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act, 2007. Eg: Kerala High Court directive (2024) mandating quicker redress of elderly abandonment cases
• Eg: Kerala High Court directive (2024) mandating quicker redress of elderly abandonment cases
• Promote community and civic interventions: Encourage community vigilance and volunteer networks to assist vulnerable persons. Eg: National Cancer Institute, Nagpur’s voluntary treatment of Aarey patient (2025)
• Eg: National Cancer Institute, Nagpur’s voluntary treatment of Aarey patient (2025)
• Create robust institutional support systems: Develop accessible state-supported old-age homes and palliative care services. Eg: Delhi’s 2024 elderly care policy launched subsidised state-run elder care homes.
• Eg: Delhi’s 2024 elderly care policy launched subsidised state-run elder care homes.
• Media sensitisation for ethical reporting: Media must foster public discourse on familial ethics and not sensationalise neglect. Eg: Press Council of India advisory (2023) on reporting elderly abuse cases with dignity
• Eg: Press Council of India advisory (2023) on reporting elderly abuse cases with dignity
Conclusion Addressing this ethical concern requires collective societal will, stronger legal frameworks, and cultivation of compassion as a public virtue — ensuring no vulnerable member is left neglected in future India.
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