UPSC Insights SECURE SYNOPSIS : 19 July 2025
Kartavya Desk Staff
NOTE: Please remember that following ‘answers’ are NOT ‘model answers’. They are NOT synopsis too if we go by definition of the term. What we are providing is content that both meets demand of the question and at the same
General Studies – 1
Q1. Discuss the influence of Persian and Central Asian elements on Mughal miniature painting. How did Indian artists adapt and localize these influences? (10 M)
Introduction: Mughal miniature painting flourished as a royal atelier art form blending Islamic aesthetics with Indic tradition. Its evolution reveals a dynamic fusion of Persian-Central Asian techniques with local themes and styles, creating a uniquely Indian visual idiom.
Influence of Persian and Central Asian elements
• Use of fine lines and colour washes: Persian miniatures introduced delicate brushwork and refined palette transitions. Eg: In Baburnama illustrations, the use of soft washes and linear elegance reflects Safavid influence.
• Eg: In Baburnama illustrations, the use of soft washes and linear elegance reflects Safavid influence.
• Themes of courtly life and heroism: Royal portraits, hunting scenes, and mythic epics were central to Persian and Timurid traditions. Eg: Hamzanama, commissioned by Akbar, draws directly from Persian heroic romance traditions.
• Eg: Hamzanama, commissioned by Akbar, draws directly from Persian heroic romance traditions.
• Architectural backgrounds and geometric stylisation: Buildings and gardens depicted with symmetry and stylized geometry reflect Central Asian designs. Eg: Padshahnama paintings show timurid garden patterns and domes in backgrounds.
• Eg: Padshahnama paintings show timurid garden patterns and domes in backgrounds.
• Techniques of manuscript illustration: Use of gold leaf, marginal motifs, and elaborate borders were derived from Persian manuscripts. Eg: The Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp influenced Mughal layouts, visible in Akbarnama folios.
• Eg: The Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp influenced Mughal layouts, visible in Akbarnama folios.
Indian adaptations and localisation
• Integration of Indian landscapes and flora: Artists began depicting realistic Indian topography, animals, and vegetation. Eg: Ustad Mansur’s studies of Indian fauna like the sarus crane and barasingha show local observational adaptation.
• Eg: Ustad Mansur’s studies of Indian fauna like the sarus crane and barasingha show local observational adaptation.
• Depiction of Hindu themes and festivals: Inclusion of Ramayana, Holi, and Krishna motifs reflected syncretism. Eg: Ramayana series painted during Akbar’s reign used Persian style but with Hindu iconography.
• Eg: Ramayana series painted during Akbar’s reign used Persian style but with Hindu iconography.
• Introduction of dynamic movement and narrative realism: Indian artists emphasised gesture, emotion, and sequential action. Eg: Scenes in the Razmnama (Mahabharata) are more fluid and expressive than their Persian counterparts.
• Eg: Scenes in the Razmnama (Mahabharata) are more fluid and expressive than their Persian counterparts.
• Fusion with regional styles: Elements from Rajasthani, Malwa, and Deccani schools were absorbed. Eg: Akbar’s atelier included Hindu artists from Gujarat and Rajasthan, who added bold colours and regional detailing.
• Eg: Akbar’s atelier included Hindu artists from Gujarat and Rajasthan, who added bold colours and regional detailing.
Conclusion: Mughal painting exemplifies how cross-cultural encounters were creatively localized to form a distinct Indo-Islamic art tradition. Its legacy remains foundational to India’s composite cultural heritage.
Q2. In what ways did the Second World War accelerate the process of decolonization? Analyse the role of global institutions in shaping post-war independence movements. How did the war alter colonial economic structures? (15 M)
Introduction
The Second World War fundamentally disrupted the colonial order by exposing imperial vulnerabilities and empowering nationalist movements. It created the geopolitical and ideological climate necessary for the collapse of global empires and emergence of sovereign states.
Ways in which the Second World War accelerated decolonization
• Weakened European imperial powers: War drained colonial powers militarily and financially, weakening their global grip. Eg: Britain’s post-war economic crisis forced withdrawal from India (1947) and later Kenya, Ghana and Malaya.
• Eg: Britain’s post-war economic crisis forced withdrawal from India (1947) and later Kenya, Ghana and Malaya.
• Rise of nationalist leaders with wartime legitimacy: Wartime leadership built domestic credibility and global recognition. Eg: Ho Chi Minh’s Viet Minh, after resisting Japan, declared Vietnamese independence in 1945.
• Eg: Ho Chi Minh’s Viet Minh, after resisting Japan, declared Vietnamese independence in 1945.
• Ideological shift against imperialism: Allied propaganda on democracy and freedom delegitimised colonial rule. Eg: The Atlantic Charter (1941) promised self-determination, which inspired Indian and African nationalist movements.
• Eg: The Atlantic Charter (1941) promised self-determination, which inspired Indian and African nationalist movements.
• Growth of anti-colonial mass movements: War-time inflation, famine, and repression spurred civil unrest and mass mobilisation. Eg: Quit India Movement (1942) grew amid war-time economic strain and lack of Indian autonomy.
• Eg: Quit India Movement (1942) grew amid war-time economic strain and lack of Indian autonomy.
• Decline of racial superiority doctrines: Non-European troops saw European vulnerability firsthand. Eg: Indian soldiers returning from battlefronts in Africa and Southeast Asia questioned colonial racial hierarchies.
• Eg: Indian soldiers returning from battlefronts in Africa and Southeast Asia questioned colonial racial hierarchies.
Role of global institutions in shaping post-war independence movements
• United Nations as a platform for decolonisation: It enabled diplomatic articulation of anti-colonial claims. Eg: India raised South Africa’s racial policies at the UN in 1946, launching a global anti-apartheid narrative.
• Eg: India raised South Africa’s racial policies at the UN in 1946, launching a global anti-apartheid narrative.
• Trusteeship system and monitoring: UN supervised colonial transitions to sovereignty. Eg: Namibia’s independence (1990) was enabled through the UN Trusteeship mechanism.
• Eg: Namibia’s independence (1990) was enabled through the UN Trusteeship mechanism.
• Support from emerging powers within UN: Newly independent countries formed alliances to pressure colonial regimes. Eg: The 1955 Bandung Conference laid the groundwork for the Non-Aligned Movement, which advanced decolonisation through multilateral diplomacy.
• Eg: The 1955 Bandung Conference laid the groundwork for the Non-Aligned Movement, which advanced decolonisation through multilateral diplomacy.
• International legal norms delegitimising empire: UN charters codified principles of equality and sovereignty. Eg: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) promoted anti-colonial ideals of liberty, equality, and dignity.
• Eg: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) promoted anti-colonial ideals of liberty, equality, and dignity.
• Role of Bretton Woods institutions: Financial institutions supported sovereign policy choices of new nations. Eg: India’s 1949 IMF and World Bank engagement helped stabilise the economy post-independence.
• Eg: India’s 1949 IMF and World Bank engagement helped stabilise the economy post-independence.
Changes in colonial economic structures post-WWII
• Collapse of colonial trade monopolies: Global war disrupted protected colonial trading systems. Eg: India expanded trade ties to USA, USSR and Europe, reducing dependence on Britain.
• Eg: India expanded trade ties to USA, USSR and Europe, reducing dependence on Britain.
• Exhaustion of colonial wealth: Colonies were exploited for raw materials and manpower with no compensation. Eg: British depletion of India’s sterling balances worth over £1.3 billion severely constrained post-war recovery.
• Eg: British depletion of India’s sterling balances worth over £1.3 billion severely constrained post-war recovery.
• Adoption of import substitution models: Former colonies sought economic self-reliance and industrialisation. Eg: India’s Second Five Year Plan (1956) focused on heavy industries to reverse colonial underdevelopment.
• Eg: India’s Second Five Year Plan (1956) focused on heavy industries to reverse colonial underdevelopment.
• Displacement of rural economies: War economies devastated local livelihoods, particularly in agriculture. Eg: Burma’s rice economy was crippled due to forced Japanese requisition and post-war instability.
• Eg: Burma’s rice economy was crippled due to forced Japanese requisition and post-war instability.
• Infrastructure damage and militarisation: Strategic military use of colonial infrastructure left it in disrepair. Eg: Japanese destruction of Burmese railways and ports during occupation (1942–45) delayed reconstruction.
• Eg: Japanese destruction of Burmese railways and ports during occupation (1942–45) delayed reconstruction.
Conclusion
World War II not only exposed the frailty of colonial empires but also reconfigured global norms in favour of sovereignty and self-determination. Its legacy lives on in today’s multilateral institutions and the continued struggle for post-colonial justice.
General Studies – 2
Q3. “Nominated members of the Rajya Sabha must serve as bridges between civil society and the legislature”. Discuss the expectations from their role. Evaluate how far this has been realised in the Indian context. Propose measures to enhance their effectiveness. (15 M)
Introduction: Article 80(3) of the Indian Constitution empowers the President to nominate 12 members to the Rajya Sabha from fields such as literature, science, art, and social service. These members are expected to act as non-partisan conduits between civil society and Parliament, enriching the legislative process with grounded expertise and diverse societal voices.
Expectations from their role
• Infusing domain expertise into policy: Their insights enrich legislative quality, especially in underrepresented areas like culture, education, and science. Eg: M.S. Swaminathan introduced ideas on agricultural sustainability and nutrition during his Rajya Sabha tenure.
• Eg: M.S. Swaminathan introduced ideas on agricultural sustainability and nutrition during his Rajya Sabha tenure.
• Representing marginalised and non-political voices: They are expected to raise issues affecting civil society, artisans, tribals, and women. Eg: Raghunath Mohapatra, a tribal sculptor, emphasised rural artisanship and heritage protection.
• Eg: Raghunath Mohapatra, a tribal sculptor, emphasised rural artisanship and heritage protection.
• Acting as moral-constitutional compass: They must uphold constitutional values, speak without electoral compulsions, and resist majoritarianism. Eg: Shyam Benegal argued for artistic freedom and inclusive narratives in debates on cultural regulation.
• Eg: Shyam Benegal argued for artistic freedom and inclusive narratives in debates on cultural regulation.
• Bridging civil society and institutional state: They serve as intermediaries between the citizen’s lived experience and policy machinery. Eg: Mary Kom, nominated in 2016, raised issues on sports infrastructure and women athletes, reflecting on-ground challenges.
• Eg: Mary Kom, nominated in 2016, raised issues on sports infrastructure and women athletes, reflecting on-ground challenges.
Extent of realisation in Indian context
• Positive contributions made by nominated members
• Specialised policy inputs in niche sectors: Some have improved debate quality on specific policy issues. Eg: Meenakshi Jain, nominated in 2025, brings scholarly insights on history and education policy.
• Eg: Meenakshi Jain, nominated in 2025, brings scholarly insights on history and education policy.
• Upholding constitutional and artistic freedoms: They have helped protect democratic values through issue-based intervention. Eg: Shyam Benegal opposed media censorship, advocating freedom of expression.
• Eg: Shyam Benegal opposed media censorship, advocating freedom of expression.
• Highlighting grassroots realities: Several members have articulated rural and civil society concerns. Eg: Raghunath Mohapatra focused on tribal culture and temple art preservation in Odisha.
• Eg: Raghunath Mohapatra focused on tribal culture and temple art preservation in Odisha.
• Connecting academia with legislation: They strengthen intellectual depth in parliamentary proceedings.
• Persistent limitations and concerns
• Low participation and absenteeism: Many nominated members underperform in attendance and debates. Eg: PRS Legislative Research (2023) found over 50% of nominated MPs had <30% attendance.
• Eg: PRS Legislative Research (2023) found over 50% of nominated MPs had <30% attendance.
• Politicisation of nominations: Rising political appointments dilute neutrality and civil society representation.
• Lack of institutional support: No structured research or secretarial assistance reduces their effectiveness. Eg: Unlike the UK’s House of Lords, Rajya Sabha nominated MPs lack support staff, affecting depth.
• Eg: Unlike the UK’s House of Lords, Rajya Sabha nominated MPs lack support staff, affecting depth.
• Symbolic over substantive presence: Some appointments appear as rewards rather than functional roles. Eg: Sachin Tendulkar, despite national stature, had poor participation and zero questions raised.
• Eg: Sachin Tendulkar, despite national stature, had poor participation and zero questions raised.
Measures to enhance their effectiveness
• Codify transparent nomination norms: Introduce objective eligibility, public scrutiny, and merit-based selection. Eg: NCRWC (2002) recommended that Rajya Sabha nominations follow clear and open criteria to preserve the spirit of Article 80(3).
• Eg: NCRWC (2002) recommended that Rajya Sabha nominations follow clear and open criteria to preserve the spirit of Article 80(3).
• Ensure political neutrality: Impose a cooling-off period from active political roles pre- and post-nomination. Eg: The 2nd Administrative Reforms Commission (2009) recommended that constitutional nominations be free from partisan interests.
• Eg: The 2nd Administrative Reforms Commission (2009) recommended that constitutional nominations be free from partisan interests.
• Institutionalise research and staff support: Provide assistants and policy research teams to aid their contribution. Eg: The UK’s Lords Library Service offers personalised research briefs, a model India can emulate for nominated MPs.
• Eg: The UK’s Lords Library Service offers personalised research briefs, a model India can emulate for nominated MPs.
• Mandate performance transparency: Publish attendance, debate participation, and committee involvement data publicly. Eg: PRS Legislative Research could institutionalise nominated MP activity reports to ensure accountability.
• Eg: PRS Legislative Research could institutionalise nominated MP activity reports to ensure accountability.
Conclusion: To ensure their relevance, nominated members must transition from symbolic appointments to active democratic contributors. With reforms rooted in transparency, non-partisanship, and institutional support, they can become enduring civil society ambassadors within India’s parliamentary democracy.
Q4. Civil society is not a substitute for the state but a catalyst for participatory governance. Analyse the role of civil society in bridging governance gaps. Assess how this relationship can be institutionalised in India. (10 M)
Introduction
Civil society enhances democratic depth by enabling inclusion, accountability, and innovation — especially in areas where state machinery faces structural or outreach limitations.
Role of civil society in bridging governance gaps
• Community-level service delivery: Civil society aids in delivering welfare services in low-capacity zones. Eg: CRY and DVEUS in Kaushambi (2024–25) enabled a 52% fall in infant mortality through community-health convergence
• Eg: CRY and DVEUS in Kaushambi (2024–25) enabled a 52% fall in infant mortality through community-health convergence
• Public awareness and behavioural change: CSOs promote behavioural shifts critical for policy uptake. Eg: Centre for Social and Behaviour Change (NITI Aayog) supported health workers in Kaushambi to counter malnutrition-related taboos.
• Eg: Centre for Social and Behaviour Change (NITI Aayog) supported health workers in Kaushambi to counter malnutrition-related taboos.
• Monitoring and accountability: Civil society promotes transparency through social audits and RTI facilitation. Eg: MKSS initiated social audits in Rajasthan, later mandated under MGNREGA Section 17.
• Eg: MKSS initiated social audits in Rajasthan, later mandated under MGNREGA Section 17.
• Advocacy and policy input: CSOs act as knowledge intermediaries, linking citizen voices to policymaking. Eg: PRS Legislative Research supports Parliamentarians with non-partisan, evidence-based analysis of legislation.
• Eg: PRS Legislative Research supports Parliamentarians with non-partisan, evidence-based analysis of legislation.
• Humanitarian and emergency response: CSOs often lead rapid response in crises when state mechanisms lag. Eg: During COVID-19, organisations like SEWA and Goonj delivered relief to migrant workers.
• Eg: During COVID-19, organisations like SEWA and Goonj delivered relief to migrant workers.
Institutionalising state–civil society relationship in India
• Statutory frameworks for collaboration: Legal clarity on roles, accountability, and engagement structures is essential. Eg: 2nd ARC Report (2007) proposed an institutional interface between NGOs and government departments.
• Eg: 2nd ARC Report (2007) proposed an institutional interface between NGOs and government departments.
• Decentralised planning platforms: Formal inclusion of CSOs in grassroots planning can deepen participatory governance. Eg: Kerala’s People’s Plan Campaign embedded CSOs in panchayat-level development planning.
• Eg: Kerala’s People’s Plan Campaign embedded CSOs in panchayat-level development planning.
• Transparent funding and CSR convergence: Aligning CSR funds with local plans can finance CSO-driven delivery. Eg: In the Aspirational Districts Programme, DM-led platforms connect CSR donors with CSOs.
• Eg: In the Aspirational Districts Programme, DM-led platforms connect CSR donors with CSOs.
• Capacity-building and registration reforms: Strengthening compliance without suppressing civil initiatives is key. Eg: NITI Aayog’s NGO Darpan Portal centralises CSO data and enhances funding transparency.
• Eg: NITI Aayog’s NGO Darpan Portal centralises CSO data and enhances funding transparency.
• Institutional feedback mechanisms: Creating government-CSO platforms for real-time feedback improves service quality. Eg: Mera Aspataal (MoHFW) integrates NGO feedback into public health facility ratings.
• Eg: Mera Aspataal (MoHFW) integrates NGO feedback into public health facility ratings.
Conclusion
A vibrant civil society complements state machinery through proximity, trust, and adaptability. Institutionalising this synergy is vital to making Indian governance inclusive, accountable, and future-ready.
Q5. Data reveals a disturbing gap between reported dowry deaths and conviction rates. Identify reasons for investigative delays. How can legal and procedural reforms bridge this gap? (10 M)
Introduction When legal justice is staggered by delay, it emboldens impunity. The yawning gap between dowry death reports and convictions reflects systemic inertia and undermines gender justice.
Reasons for investigative delays
• Forensic dependency and delays: Post-mortem, chemical analysis and forensic results are slow and often delayed. Eg: In Uttar Pradesh, forensic delays in dowry death cases stretched charge-sheet filing beyond 6 months in 67% cases
• Eg: In Uttar Pradesh, forensic delays in dowry death cases stretched charge-sheet filing beyond 6 months in 67% cases
• Inadequate gender-sensitive policing: Lack of trained personnel in handling sensitive cases delays FIRs and follow-ups. Eg: The Verma Committee (2013) flagged absence of gender-sensitised policing as a critical flaw in gender crime response.
• Eg: The Verma Committee (2013) flagged absence of gender-sensitised policing as a critical flaw in gender crime response.
• Low priority by investigating officers: Dowry cases are often deprioritised compared to other criminal cases. Eg: Only 4,500 out of 7,000 dowry death cases were charge-sheeted annually (NCRB, 2023).
• Eg: Only 4,500 out of 7,000 dowry death cases were charge-sheeted annually (NCRB, 2023).
• Hostile in-laws and evidence tampering: Key evidence is lost due to delayed response, especially in cases of suicide. Eg: In Chandigarh 2025, a bride’s suicide case failed to result in charges due to lack of preserved digital proof.
• Eg: In Chandigarh 2025, a bride’s suicide case failed to result in charges due to lack of preserved digital proof.
• Delayed magisterial inquest and medico-legal processes: Procedural lethargy at early stages impairs prosecution. Eg: Section 176 CrPC mandates magisterial inquiry in unnatural deaths of women within 7 years of marriage—rarely adhered to in time.
• Eg: Section 176 CrPC mandates magisterial inquiry in unnatural deaths of women within 7 years of marriage—rarely adhered to in time.
Legal and procedural reforms to bridge the gap
• Time-bound investigation mandates: Enforce strict deadlines for dowry death probes under CrPC. Eg: Madhya Pradesh Women’s Safety Policy (2023) sets a 60-day timeline for all crimes against women investigations.
• Eg: Madhya Pradesh Women’s Safety Policy (2023) sets a 60-day timeline for all crimes against women investigations.
• Special dowry crime cells: Dedicated, multidisciplinary teams to fast-track investigation and victim assistance. Eg: Delhi Police Crime Against Women Cell helped expedite charge-sheeting in select pilot zones post-2021.
• Eg: Delhi Police Crime Against Women Cell helped expedite charge-sheeting in select pilot zones post-2021.
• Strengthening forensic infrastructure: Improve labs, timelines, and digitised chain of custody. Eg: Nirbhaya Fund was used to establish Sakhi Suraksha Kendras with integrated forensic access in select states (2022).
• Eg: Nirbhaya Fund was used to establish Sakhi Suraksha Kendras with integrated forensic access in select states (2022).
• Mandatory digital documentation and CCTV use: Police stations must document complaints digitally for transparency. Eg: Supreme Court in Shafhi Mohammad v. State of Himachal Pradesh (2018) mandated CCTVs in police stations for accountability.
• Eg: Supreme Court in Shafhi Mohammad v. State of Himachal Pradesh (2018) mandated CCTVs in police stations for accountability.
• Victim-family legal aid and witness protection: Ensure families get legal counselling and shield from coercion. Eg: Witness Protection Scheme, 2018 can be expanded for dowry case families to protect key testimonies.
• Eg: Witness Protection Scheme, 2018 can be expanded for dowry case families to protect key testimonies.
Conclusion Delays in justice for dowry deaths erode faith in law and embolden patriarchy. Institutionalising urgency through time-bound, transparent, and victim-centric systems is the only way to close the justice gap.
General Studies – 3
Q6. India achieving 50% non-fossil fuel power capacity ahead of its target reflects a fundamental transformation in its energy architecture. Identify the key policy and technological drivers of this shift. Examine the implications for energy security. (15 M)
Introduction
India’s clean energy leap not only accelerates its Paris targets but marks a decisive pivot from fossil lock-in to low-carbon development. With 242.78 GW out of 484.82 GW (as of June 2025) now from non-fossil sources, it signals structural transition.
Key policy drivers of the shift
• Ambitious NDC and national targets: The 2022 update to India’s NDC made non-fossil capacity a quantifiable climate commitment, aligning sectoral policies. Eg: India’s NDC (2022) commits to 50% installed non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030.
• Eg: India’s NDC (2022) commits to 50% installed non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030.
• Targeted renewable energy schemes: Flagship programmes created direct infrastructure, financial and behavioural incentives across consumer classes. Eg: PM-KUSUM distributed solar pumps, while PM Surya Ghar (2024) aims to solarise 1 crore households.
• Eg: PM-KUSUM distributed solar pumps, while PM Surya Ghar (2024) aims to solarise 1 crore households.
• Market and regulatory liberalisation: Competitive bidding, open access reforms and RE certificates made clean energy commercially viable. Eg: Green Open Access Rules, 2022 eased small consumer access to clean power; SECI auctions attracted record-low bids.
• Eg: Green Open Access Rules, 2022 eased small consumer access to clean power; SECI auctions attracted record-low bids.
• Supportive climate finance ecosystem: Multilateral and bilateral climate funding catalysed large-scale clean infrastructure. Eg: ISA, ADB, and World Bank GRID Program funded solar parks and energy storage systems.
• Eg: ISA, ADB, and World Bank GRID Program funded solar parks and energy storage systems.
• Subnational alignment and federal coordination: States with high solar and wind potential developed region-specific RE policies and fiscal incentives. Eg: Gujarat’s Hybrid RE Policy (2021) enabled solar-wind co-located farms; Tamil Nadu leads in wind generation.
• Eg: Gujarat’s Hybrid RE Policy (2021) enabled solar-wind co-located farms; Tamil Nadu leads in wind generation.
Key technological drivers of the shift
• Declining RE costs due to scale and innovation: Rapid cost declines in solar and wind made clean power economically competitive with coal. Eg: Solar tariffs fell to ₹1.99/kWh in SECI’s 2021 auction, the lowest in India. (SECI data)
• Eg: Solar tariffs fell to ₹1.99/kWh in SECI’s 2021 auction, the lowest in India. (SECI data)
• Emergence of battery storage and hybrid models: Battery energy storage and pumped hydro enhanced RE reliability and round-the-clock supply. Eg: BESS pilot in Ladakh (2024) integrated solar and storage in high-altitude, off-grid zones. (MNRE)
• Eg: BESS pilot in Ladakh (2024) integrated solar and storage in high-altitude, off-grid zones. (MNRE)
• AI and digital integration in grid operations: AI-based load forecasting and smart metering enabled better renewable integration and grid flexibility. Eg: POSOCO’s REMCs use AI tools for real-time RE forecasting and grid synchronisation.
• Eg: POSOCO’s REMCs use AI tools for real-time RE forecasting and grid synchronisation.
• Proliferation of distributed energy technologies: Rooftop solar, mini-grids and agri-voltaics decentralised generation and improved access. Eg: Agri-PV in Maharashtra helped farmers grow crops under elevated solar panels, doubling land productivity.
• Eg: Agri-PV in Maharashtra helped farmers grow crops under elevated solar panels, doubling land productivity.
• Improved wind and solar integration through hybrid systems: Combining solar-wind-storage ensures continuous power despite intermittency. Eg: RTC RE scheme (2023) by SECI bundled RE sources with storage and thermal backup for firm supply.
• Eg: RTC RE scheme (2023) by SECI bundled RE sources with storage and thermal backup for firm supply.
Implications for energy security
• Reduced fossil fuel dependency and import savings: Lower coal and gas reliance reduces external vulnerability and trade deficits. Eg: India saved ~$10 billion in avoided fossil fuel imports in FY24, improving current account stability.
• Eg: India saved ~$10 billion in avoided fossil fuel imports in FY24, improving current account stability.
• Enhanced grid resilience and load management: Storage, AI, and flexible supply reduce blackout risks and ensure smoother peak load management. Eg: Wind generation in Tamil Nadu helped avert blackouts during 2023 summer peak demand.
• Eg: Wind generation in Tamil Nadu helped avert blackouts during 2023 summer peak demand.
• Energy access and rural empowerment: Off-grid and decentralised RE has reached remote, underserved regions, ensuring inclusive development. Eg: Jharkhand solar mini-grids electrified over 50 tribal villages with zero prior access.
• Eg: Jharkhand solar mini-grids electrified over 50 tribal villages with zero prior access.
• Industrial development and employment generation: Clean tech manufacturing and O&M services have spurred green jobs and new industrial ecosystems. Eg: PLI Scheme (2021) added 48 GW solar module capacity and created ~1.6 lakh jobs by 2025. (PIB)
• Eg: PLI Scheme (2021) added 48 GW solar module capacity and created ~1.6 lakh jobs by 2025. (PIB)
• Carbon emission reductions and climate co-benefits: Clean power has sharply lowered India’s carbon intensity and air pollution burdens. Eg: RE helped avoid 276 million tonnes of CO₂ in 2024, aiding in peak carbon control. (MoEFCC GHG Inventory)
• Eg: RE helped avoid 276 million tonnes of CO₂ in 2024, aiding in peak carbon control. (MoEFCC GHG Inventory)
Measures to strengthen long-term transition
• Invest in battery storage and pumped hydro: Scalable energy storage is vital for managing RE intermittency and grid stability. Eg: National Energy Storage Mission (proposed) aims for 40 GW BESS by 2030. (NITI Aayog)
• Eg: National Energy Storage Mission (proposed) aims for 40 GW BESS by 2030. (NITI Aayog)
• Strengthen transmission infrastructure: Green energy corridors must be expanded for RE evacuation from resource-rich to demand-heavy regions. Eg: PGCIL’s GEC-II targets 20,000 km of new RE transmission lines by 2026. (MoP Report 2024)
• Eg: PGCIL’s GEC-II targets 20,000 km of new RE transmission lines by 2026. (MoP Report 2024)
• Mainstream circular economy in RE sector: Policies needed for recycling of solar panels, wind blades and batteries to ensure sustainability. Eg: MNRE’s draft Solar Waste Management Rules (2024) recommend extended producer responsibility.
• Eg: MNRE’s draft Solar Waste Management Rules (2024) recommend extended producer responsibility.
Conclusion
India’s clean energy momentum is not just timely—it’s transformative. To ensure it endures, India must now build circular, secure and decentralised energy systems that empower citizens and future-proof its economy.
Q7. What are lethal autonomous weapon systems (LAWS) and how do they differ from remotely operated systems? Examine the strategic risks they pose to regional stability. Suggest measures India should adopt to mitigate their misuse. (15 M)
Introduction
The rise of lethal autonomous weapon systems (LAWS), capable of engaging targets without human intervention, is transforming military doctrines globally. Their operational independence poses unprecedented risks, particularly in regions with fragile deterrence like South Asia.
What are LAWS and how do they differ from remotely operated systems
• Independent engagement capability: LAWS autonomously detect, track, and engage targets without human authorisation or supervision.
• Eg: Russia’s Uran-9 robotic combat vehicle can navigate terrain and use firepower autonomously based on AI inputs.
• Absence of real-time human control: Unlike LAWS, remotely operated systems require continuous human decision-making.
• Eg: The US MQ-9 Reaper drone, used in Afghanistan, is remotely piloted and its strikes are authorised by human operators.
• Faster-than-human decision cycles: LAWS act within milliseconds using deep learning, unlike remote systems constrained by communication latency.
• Eg: In Project Convergence 2024, the US Army demonstrated drone swarms engaging targets in under 2 seconds without human intervention.
• Lack of moral or legal judgment: LAWS cannot assess proportionality, civilian intent, or surrender, which human operators or remote pilots can.
• Eg: Human Rights Watch (2023) stated that LAWS violate the Martens Clause because they lack the capacity for conscience or moral interpretation.
• Emergent and unpredictable behaviour: Unlike remote systems, LAWS using machine learning may behave unpredictably in real-world combat.
• Eg: In China’s 2025 swarming drone tests, drones demonstrated unprogrammed coordination patterns, raising concerns about battlefield control.
Strategic risks LAWS pose to regional stability
• Unintended escalation: LAWS errors in high-tension zones can lead to retaliatory military responses without state intention.
• Eg: A LAWS-led misfire across the LoC during border tensions could be seen as deliberate escalation, prompting military retaliation.
• Terrorist and non-state actor misuse: Cheap, dual-use AI tech enables LAWS to fall into the hands of non-state groups.
• Eg: The UNIDIR 2024 report flagged proliferation of autonomous drones among militias in Libya and Yemen, warning of similar risks in Asia.
• Destabilisation of deterrence structures: LAWS can bypass command hierarchies and erode human judgment in sensitive decision-making.
• Eg: The RAND Corporation study (2023) noted that AI-enabled missile systems can degrade conventional and nuclear deterrence frameworks.
• Lack of accountability under international law: No individual can be held responsible for unintended deaths caused by LAWS.
• Eg: The ICRC (2024) concluded that LAWS challenge legal attribution under the Geneva Conventions and Protocol I Article 36.
• Arms race in autonomy: Regional powers may aggressively develop LAWS to avoid strategic lag, raising threat levels.
• Eg: China’s AI-enabled robotic tanks, deployed near LAC in 2025, triggered calls within India to accelerate autonomous defence systems.
Measures India should adopt to mitigate misuse of LAWS
• Mandate human-in-the-loop control: Human authorisation must be compulsory for all lethal engagements by autonomous systems.
• Eg: The NITI Aayog AI Strategy (2018) recommended embedding ethical guardrails and ensuring human oversight in all critical AI applications.
• Develop LAWS countermeasures: India must enhance capabilities in drone jamming, spoofing, and autonomous threat neutralisation.
• Eg: The DRDO anti-drone system, deployed during Republic Day 2025, successfully demonstrated autonomous threat interception.
• Support international regulation: India should lead norm-building efforts for a legally binding treaty banning fully autonomous lethal weapons.
• Eg: At the UN CCW 2024 summit, India backed a prohibition on weapons with delegated authority to kill without human supervision.
• Institutionalise ethical testing and legal audits: All defence AI systems should undergo simulation trials and legal reviews pre-deployment.
• Eg: The Shekatkar Committee (2016) recommended rigorous validation protocols before inducting emerging technologies into active service.
• Promote defence-AI innovation with safeguards: Encourage innovation through public-private partnerships while embedding control layers.
• Eg: Under iDEX, several startups are working with the armed forces to develop ethical autonomous systems with red-teaming protocols.
Conclusion
India must strike a careful balance between technological readiness and moral responsibility. Institutionalising human control, legal oversight, and international cooperation is vital to prevent a future where machines autonomously dictate the terms of war.
Q8. “Wetland conservation is no longer a luxury but a necessity in developing economies”. Illustrate with examples how wetlands contribute to climate resilience. Analyse why their neglect persists despite their known benefits. (10 M)
Introduction Wetlands act as nature’s shock absorbers, offering frontline defence against climate risks. Their preservation is critical for balancing ecological stability and human survival in vulnerable economies.
Wetlands contribute to climate resilience
• Flood regulation and disaster buffering: Wetlands absorb excess rainfall and act as sponges, reducing flood peaks and storm surges. Eg: Kafue Flats, Zambia reactivated natural flooding through a $300K restoration, shielding local communities and enhancing water regulation.
• Eg: Kafue Flats, Zambia reactivated natural flooding through a $300K restoration, shielding local communities and enhancing water regulation.
• Carbon sequestration and climate mitigation: Peatlands and marshes store vast amounts of carbon, slowing climate change. Eg: Cuvette Centrale, Congo Basin holds over 30 billion tonnes of carbon, acting as a global carbon sink.
• Eg: Cuvette Centrale, Congo Basin holds over 30 billion tonnes of carbon, acting as a global carbon sink.
• Water security in arid zones: Wetlands recharge aquifers and provide steady water flows during droughts. Eg: Hadejia-Nguru wetlands, Nigeria sustain dry-season agriculture and water availability in northern semi-arid regions.
• Eg: Hadejia-Nguru wetlands, Nigeria sustain dry-season agriculture and water availability in northern semi-arid regions.
• Biodiversity and ecosystem support: Wetlands offer climate-resilient habitats critical to species survival. Eg: Okavango Delta, Botswana, a UNESCO site, hosts over 1,300 species, ensuring food-web stability.
• Eg: Okavango Delta, Botswana, a UNESCO site, hosts over 1,300 species, ensuring food-web stability.
• Livelihood and food security: Wetlands underpin rural incomes via fisheries, farming, and eco-tourism. Eg: Post-restoration, Zambia’s artisanal fisheries revived to generate $30 million/year, benefitting over a million people.
• Eg: Post-restoration, Zambia’s artisanal fisheries revived to generate $30 million/year, benefitting over a million people.
Why their neglect persists despite known benefits
• Weak integration in economic accounting: Wetlands are absent from national GDP and budget frameworks. Eg: Only 3% of African nations incorporate ecosystem service valuation in national accounting.
• Eg: Only 3% of African nations incorporate ecosystem service valuation in national accounting.
• Unregulated urban expansion: Encroachment and infrastructure projects destroy wetlands. Eg: Nairobi River Basin wetlands were replaced by roads and housing, increasing urban flood vulnerability.
• Eg: Nairobi River Basin wetlands were replaced by roads and housing, increasing urban flood vulnerability.
• Low institutional and policy priority: Fragmented governance leads to implementation paralysis. Eg: Over 50% of African Ramsar nations lack national wetland strategies.
• Eg: Over 50% of African Ramsar nations lack national wetland strategies.
• Inadequate funding and technical support: Investments don’t match ecological losses. Eg: Despite proven benefits, Kafue Flats received only $300K for restoration.
• Eg: Despite proven benefits, Kafue Flats received only $300K for restoration.
• Community alienation from governance: Centralised policies ignore local stewardship. Eg: Unlike India’s FRA, 2006, most African nations don’t empower communities to co-manage wetlands.
• Eg: Unlike India’s FRA, 2006, most African nations don’t empower communities to co-manage wetlands.
Conclusion Wetland conservation must shift from reactive tokenism to proactive climate strategy. Recognising wetlands as developmental assets can anchor both ecological stability and inclusive growth.
General Studies – 4
Q9. Why must rule of law be upheld not just legally, but ethically? Examine the role of values in ensuring lawful conduct by both citizens and public officials. (10 M)
Introduction
The rule of law derives legitimacy not merely from legislation but from its ethical acceptance in society. When rooted in values, it fosters trust, voluntary compliance, and institutional legitimacy.
Why rule of law must be upheld ethically, not just legally
• Procedural legality without ethicality invites manipulation: Individuals exploit loopholes when rules lack moral anchoring.
• Eg: Gujarat arms license scam (2025) exposed forged licenses despite a legal framework.
• Public trust requires moral legitimacy of law: Legal enforcement without fairness erodes citizen confidence.
• Eg: Vohra Committee Report (1993) warned of how criminal-bureaucratic nexus undermines lawful governance.
• Ethical adherence ensures law survives beyond oversight: People follow law even when enforcement is absent.
• Eg: COVID-19 lockdown compliance in Kerala showed value-driven observance of public health rules.
• Morality curbs arbitrary use of legal power: Ethical restraint prevents discretionary misuse of authority.
• Eg: In Maneka Gandhi case (1978), SC upheld that law must be just, fair, and reasonable.
• Ethics bridges legal gaps in ambiguous situations: Values help apply law where codified clarity is absent.
• Eg: 2nd ARC Report (2007) urged moral reasoning in administrative discretion to serve public interest.
Role of values in ensuring lawful conduct
• Integrity ensures alignment between law and action: Prevents selective or opportunistic application of rules.
• Eg: Infosys ethics charter mandates conduct aligned with both legal and ethical standards.
• Justice ensures law is applied fairly and equitably: Upholds dignity, especially for marginalised sections.
• Eg: Forest Rights Act (2006) recognised justice for tribal communities left out of formal law.
• Accountability creates deterrence against misconduct: Makes public servants answerable for lawful behaviour.
• Eg: Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act (2013) institutionalised legal and ethical accountability.
• Empathy balances law with human context: Allows compassionate implementation in genuine hardship.
• Eg: Delhi Police’s 2023 outreach initiative resolved petty crimes with counselling, not arrests.
• Civic duty fosters voluntary legal compliance: Citizens act lawfully when driven by internalised values.
• Eg: Swachh Bharat Mission succeeded through value-based behavioural change, not penalties alone.
Conclusion
Rule of law thrives not in courtrooms but in conscience. When citizens and officials internalise values, law becomes not a restraint but a shared social ethic.
Q10. Mob justice often arises when institutional trust is low. Discuss the ethical implications of bypassing due process. How can such tendencies be countered through value-based governance? (10 M)
Introduction
Vigilantism reflects a moral failure in society where citizens abandon law for emotion, exposing the fragility of institutional trust and civic ethics.
Ethical implications of bypassing due process
• Erosion of rule of law: Legitimises unlawful actions and weakens confidence in legal institutions. Eg: In the 2023 Manipur mob incident, a group forcibly entered police custody to target suspects, undermining legal proceedings.
• Eg: In the 2023 Manipur mob incident, a group forcibly entered police custody to target suspects, undermining legal proceedings.
• Moral disengagement: People justify violence by diffusing responsibility and framing it as collective justice. Eg: 2015 Dadri lynching, where a mob killed a man based on unverified claims, revealing selective morality and emotional bias.
• Eg: 2015 Dadri lynching, where a mob killed a man based on unverified claims, revealing selective morality and emotional bias.
• Collective ethical collapse: Failure of community, local leadership, and state to uphold shared moral responsibility. Eg: In Jharkhand (2019), multiple lynchings occurred amidst silence from local influencers and inadequate police response (PUCL Report).
• Eg: In Jharkhand (2019), multiple lynchings occurred amidst silence from local influencers and inadequate police response (PUCL Report).
• Loss of institutional legitimacy: Delays, corruption, or perceived bias reduce public reliance on courts or police. Eg: India Justice Report 2022 highlights large case pendencies and under-resourced police as key trust deficits.
• Eg: India Justice Report 2022 highlights large case pendencies and under-resourced police as key trust deficits.
• Violation of constitutional morality: Undermines principles of justice, equality, and dignity under Article 21. Eg: In Pravasi Bhalai Sangathan v. Union of India (2014), the SC linked hate speech and mob behaviour to a direct threat to constitutional ethics.
• Eg: In Pravasi Bhalai Sangathan v. Union of India (2014), the SC linked hate speech and mob behaviour to a direct threat to constitutional ethics.
Countering mob justice through value-based governance
• Ethical public communication: State must reinforce trust through transparent, morally grounded messaging. Eg: Madhya Pradesh’s “Samvedna” programme uses local media and schools to instil legal awareness and civic responsibility.
• Eg: Madhya Pradesh’s “Samvedna” programme uses local media and schools to instil legal awareness and civic responsibility.
• Community policing and civic trust: Ethical partnerships between citizens and police restore grassroots legitimacy. Eg: Kerala’s Janamaithri Suraksha Project reduced mob flare-ups by integrating community volunteers in crime prevention (NITI Aayog, 2022).
• Eg: Kerala’s Janamaithri Suraksha Project reduced mob flare-ups by integrating community volunteers in crime prevention (NITI Aayog, 2022).
• Institutionalising constitutional morality: Training civil servants in empathy, fairness, and the spirit of the Constitution. Eg: LBSNAA’s 2023 ethics module now includes simulations based on constitutional dilemmas to build moral reasoning capacity.
• Eg: LBSNAA’s 2023 ethics module now includes simulations based on constitutional dilemmas to build moral reasoning capacity.
• Accountability for mob incitement: Strict penal measures against enablers restore faith in law and consequences. Eg: Tehseen Poonawalla v. Union of India (2018) led to SC-mandated nodal officers and fast-track courts to combat mob lynching.
• Eg: Tehseen Poonawalla v. Union of India (2018) led to SC-mandated nodal officers and fast-track courts to combat mob lynching.
• Ethical decentralised leadership: Local administrators must serve as ethical anchors during volatile situations. Eg: In 2024, Bhind (MP) appointed sarpanches as “Nyaya Mitras” to proactively discourage mob actions and promote legal remedies.
• Eg: In 2024, Bhind (MP) appointed sarpanches as “Nyaya Mitras” to proactively discourage mob actions and promote legal remedies.
Conclusion
Mob justice is not just a breakdown of law but a breakdown of values. Embedding ethics into governance and citizenship is the surest way to replace rage with reason.
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