UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 31 December 2025

UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 31 December 2025 covers important current affairs of the day, their backward linkages, their relevance for Prelims exam and MCQs on main articles

InstaLinks : Insta Links help you think beyond the current affairs issue and help you think multidimensionally to develop depth in your understanding of these issues. These linkages provided in this ‘hint’ format help you frame possible questions in your mind that might arise(or an examiner might imagine) from each current event. InstaLinks also connect every issue to their static or theoretical background.

Table of Contents

GS Paper 2:

• Law on Suspension of Sentence

Law on Suspension of Sentence

GS Paper 1 & 3:

• Virtual Water Export Crisis

Virtual Water Export Crisis

Content for Mains Enrichment (CME):

• The World Weather Attribution Annual Report 2025

The World Weather Attribution Annual Report 2025

Facts for Prelims (FFP):

• Secondary Pollutants

Secondary Pollutants

• National Technology Readiness Assessment Framework (NTRAF)

National Technology Readiness Assessment Framework (NTRAF)

• Copper

Copper

• PathGennie Software for Fast-Tracking Drug Discovery

PathGennie Software for Fast-Tracking Drug Discovery

• Justice Mission 2025

Justice Mission 2025

• The drug-resistant fungal species *Candida auris*

The drug-resistant fungal species *Candida auris*

Mapping:

• Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary

Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary

UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 31 December 2025

GS Paper 2:

Law on Suspension of Sentence

Source: TH

Subject: Polity

Context: The Supreme Court has stayed the Delhi High Court’s order suspending the life sentence of former MLA Kuldeep Singh Sengar in the Unnao rape case, reviving debate on when courts can suspend sentences in heinous crimes.

About Law on Suspension of Sentence:

What is the issue?

• ‘Suspension of sentence’ refers to the temporary halt on execution of punishment awarded by a trial court during the pendency of an appeal.

• While it preserves the right to appeal, its misuse in serious offences such as rape and life imprisonment cases raises concerns about victim safety, public confidence in justice, and dilution of deterrence.

Situations when suspension of sentence is granted

• Fixed-term or short sentences: Suspension is ordinarily granted because lengthy appellate delays may result in the convict serving the entire sentence, rendering the statutory right to appeal illusory and meaningless.

• Life imprisonment or heinous offences: Suspension is an exception and requires strict judicial scrutiny of the offence’s gravity, manner of commission, societal impact, and the appellant’s likelihood of securing acquittal.

• Apparent legal or procedural infirmities: Where the trial judgment reveals prima facie perversity, gross legal error, or misapplication of law, suspension may be justified to prevent irreversible miscarriage of justice.

• Humanitarian and medical considerations: Exceptional circumstances such as terminal illness, extreme age, or grave medical conditions may warrant suspension, provided public safety and justice are not compromised.

• Prolonged incarceration with delayed appeal hearing: In rare cases, exceptionally long imprisonment coupled with unlikely early disposal of appeal may be considered, though not as a standalone ground in life sentence cases.

Law governing suspension of sentence:

• Statutory basis under criminal procedure law: Section 389 of the CrPC, 1973 (now Section 430 of BNSS, 2023) empowers appellate courts to suspend execution of sentence during the pendency of appeal.

• Suspension affects punishment, not conviction: The provision merely stays the operation of the sentence; the finding of guilt remains intact unless reversed by the appellate court.

• Discretionary and not a matter of right: Suspension is a judicial discretion guided by reason, proportionality and public interest, rather than an automatic consequence of filing an appeal.

• Higher threshold for serious offences: In life imprisonment or heinous crimes, courts must apply a stricter standard to prevent erosion of deterrence and public confidence in justice.

Various court judgement:

• Bhagwan Rama Shinde Gosai v. State of Gujarat (1999): The Supreme Court held that suspension of sentence is generally justified in short-term convictions, but must be exercised with restraint in serious offences.

• Shivani Tyagi v. State of Uttar Pradesh (2024): The Court clarified that in heinous crimes, especially those involving sexual violence, long incarceration alone cannot justify suspension of sentence.

• Chhotelal Yadav v. State of Jharkhand (2025): The Supreme Court ruled that in life imprisonment cases, suspension is permissible only where a palpable legal error suggests a real likelihood of acquittal on appeal.

Challenges associated:

• Dilution of deterrence: Frequent suspension in grave offences weakens the punitive signal of criminal law and undermines its role in discouraging serious crimes.

• Threats to victim safety: Release of powerful convicts can revive intimidation, retraumatise survivors, and compromise witness protection and trial integrity.

• Inconsistent judicial application: Divergent standards across courts create uncertainty, arbitrariness, and forum-dependent outcomes in suspension jurisprudence.

• Legislative and definitional gaps: Narrow statutory definitions, such as “public servant” under POCSO, may exclude politically influential offenders from aggravated liability.

• Erosion of public trust: Perceived leniency in high-profile cases fuels cynicism and weakens citizens’ faith in the fairness of the justice delivery system.

Way ahead:

• Stricter evidentiary threshold: Suspension in life sentence cases should require a clear prima facie indication of likely acquittal or manifest legal error.

• Victim-centric balancing: Courts must weigh power asymmetry, prior intimidation, and survivor vulnerability alongside the rights of the convict.

• Legislative clarification of special laws: Parliament should amend statutes like POCSO to expressly include elected representatives where abuse of authority is evident.

• Time-bound appellate adjudication: Fast-tracking appeals in serious offences can reduce reliance on suspension due to prolonged incarceration.

• Uniform judicial guidelines: The Supreme Court may frame binding norms to harmonise suspension standards in heinous and life-imprisonment cases.

Conclusion:

Suspension of sentence is an important appellate safeguard, but it must remain an exception in grave crimes. In life imprisonment and sexual offence cases, victim safety and societal interest must prevail over routine leniency. Clearer laws, cautious adjudication and faster appeals are essential to prevent dilution of justice.

Q. The death penalty is often seen as a deterrent to crimes, yet global and national studies indicate otherwise. Assess the effectiveness of capital punishment in addressing violent crimes and suggest alternative policy measures. (15 M)

#### UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 31 December 2025 GS Paper 1 & 3:

Virtual Water Export Crisis

Source: TH

Subject: Water Conservation

Context: India has emerged as the world’s largest rice producer and exporter, accounting for nearly 40% of global rice trade, but this export dominance is intensifying groundwater depletion in water-stressed States like Punjab and Haryana.

• The debate has resurfaced around India’s growing “virtual water export crisis”, where scarce groundwater is effectively exported through water-intensive crops.

About Virtual Water Export Crisis:

What it is?

• The virtual water export crisis refers to the export of water embedded in agricultural commodities, especially water-intensive crops like rice, from a water-stressed country.

• In India’s case, large rice exports mean exporting billions of cubic metres of groundwater, even as domestic aquifers face depletion.

Key trends:

• India exports over 20 million metric tonnes of rice annually, embedding massive quantities of irrigation water.

• Rice production alone accounts for 34–43% of global irrigation water use.

• Around 24,000+ million cubic metres of virtual water is exported annually through rice trade.

• Northern rice belts increasingly rely on groundwater rather than surface irrigation.

Reasons behind the virtual water export crisis:

• Water-intensive rice cultivation model: Rice requires 3,000–4,000 litres of water per kg, far exceeding global averages, making it unsustainable in semi-arid regions.

• Distortionary subsidies: High MSPs for rice and free or cheap electricity incentivise excessive groundwater extraction and discourage crop diversification.

• Policy legacy of food security: Green Revolution-era policies prioritised rice and wheat to ensure food security, but were not recalibrated for water scarcity realities.

• Weak groundwater regulation: Groundwater remains poorly regulated, allowing unrestricted borewell drilling and over-extraction by farmers.

• Global market dependence: India’s dominance in global rice trade makes policy shifts politically and economically sensitive due to price and export implications.

Impacts on India:

• Rapid groundwater depletion: In Punjab and Haryana, CGWB data shows most blocks classified as over-exploited, with borewell depths increasing from 30 feet to 80–200 feet, sharply raising irrigation costs.

• Rising farm distress: Small farmers in rice belts report mounting debt to finance deeper pumps and electricity, reflected in rising input costs despite MSP hikes, as highlighted in recent Reuters field surveys (2025).

• Climate vulnerability: Even with good monsoons in 2023–25, excessive extraction prevented aquifer recharge, exposing northern agriculture to severe risk during any future weak monsoon year.

• Ecological imbalance: Falling water tables have degraded wetlands and soil moisture regimes in Punjab–Haryana, reducing biodiversity and long-term land productivity, per PAU studies.

• Inter-generational inequity: India exports over 24,000 million cubic metres of virtual water annually through rice, effectively transferring future water security costs to coming generations.

Challenges associated:

• Political resistance to reform: The rollback of the 2020–21 farm laws after nationwide protests shows the political sensitivity of reducing MSP dependence and procurement guarantees.

• Farmer income insecurity: One-season diversification incentives, such as Haryana’s ₹17,500/ha millet scheme (2024), failed to scale due to lack of income certainty.

• Uneven State capacity: As water is a State subject, groundwater regulation remains weak and fragmented, with enforcement varying widely across Punjab, Haryana and eastern States.

• Short-term policy design: Crop-switch schemes limited to a single season have not offset long-term risk, discouraging farmers from abandoning assured rice procurement.

• Data and enforcement gaps: Despite NAQUIM mapping, absence of real-time extraction monitoring allows unchecked borewell drilling in over-exploited blocks.

Initiatives taken to handle the water crisis:

• Jal Shakti Abhiyan (JSA): Mission-mode water conservation and recharge campaign since 2019, with focus on over-exploited districts.

• Atal Bhujal Yojana: Community-led groundwater management in water-stressed districts.

• Mission Amrit Sarovar: Rejuvenation of local water bodies to enhance groundwater recharge.

• Per Drop More Crop: Promotion of micro-irrigation to improve farm water-use efficiency.

• NAQUIM 2.0: Scientific aquifer mapping for informed groundwater management decisions.

Way ahead:

• Reorient MSP and procurement policy: Expanding assured procurement for millets under International Year of Millets momentum can replicate rice-like income security with lower water use.

• Price groundwater realistically: Rationalising free power for agriculture and promoting solar pumps with usage caps can curb wasteful extraction, as piloted in parts of Gujarat.

• Long-term diversification support: Experts recommend 5–7 year income assurance, as short-term schemes have failed to induce durable crop shifts in Punjab–Haryana.

• Promote climate-smart agriculture: Techniques like Direct Seeded Rice (DSR) promoted by Punjab Agriculture Department reduce water use by 15–20% per hectare.

• Integrate trade and water policy: India’s export strategy must internalise water footprint costs, shifting exports toward less water-intensive, higher-value crops to reduce virtual water loss.

Conclusion:

India’s rice export success masks a silent crisis of groundwater depletion through virtual water exports. Continuing to subsidise water-intensive crops in stressed regions threatens long-term food and water security. Sustainable agriculture now demands aligning farm policy, water governance and trade strategy with ecological limits.

Q. The cropping pattern in India is highly skewed towards crops that are water-intensive. In this context, discuss the need to shift the focus from land productivity to irrigation water productivity. (250 words)

#### UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 31 December 2025 Content for Mains Enrichment (CME)

The World Weather Attribution Annual Report 2025

Context: The World Weather Attribution (WWA) Annual Report 2025 warns that climate change-driven extremes in 2025 pushed millions of people close to the limits of adaptation, despite La Niña conditions.

About The World Weather Attribution Annual Report 2025:

What it is?

• World Weather Attribution (WWA) is an international scientific collaboration that analyses how human-induced climate change influences extreme weather events such as heatwaves, floods, storms, droughts and wildfires.

Key findings (2025):

• Heatwaves intensified sharply: Heatwaves since 2015 have become significantly more intense, with some events nearly 10 times more likely, showing that even small increases in global temperature have outsized impacts.

• Crossing the 1.5°C threshold: The three-year global average temperature is projected to cross the 1.5°C limit for the first time, despite 2025 being a La Niña year, underlining the strength of long-term warming trends.

• Limits of adaptation reached: Several extreme events revealed that adaptation measures are no longer sufficient for vulnerable populations, especially in the Global South.

• Inequality in climate impacts: Marginalised communities were systematically the worst affected, while data gaps and weak climate models limited analysis of many Global South events.

• Extreme event profile (2025): 157 humanitarian-impact events identified Heatwaves and floods (49 each) most frequent Storms (38), wildfires (11), droughts (7) Heatwaves emerged as the deadliest hazard, with tens of thousands of deaths in single events.

• 157 humanitarian-impact events identified

• Heatwaves and floods (49 each) most frequent

• Storms (38), wildfires (11), droughts (7)

• Heatwaves emerged as the deadliest hazard, with tens of thousands of deaths in single events.

Relevance for UPSC Exam Syllabus:

• GS Paper I (Geography):

• Climate change impacts on weather patterns, heatwaves, floods, droughts Regional vulnerability and human geography dimensions of climate extremes

• Climate change impacts on weather patterns, heatwaves, floods, droughts

• Regional vulnerability and human geography dimensions of climate extremes

• GS Paper III (Environment, Disaster Management):

• Climate change and extreme weather attribution Limits of adaptation vs mitigation debate Disaster risk reduction and climate resilience

• Climate change and extreme weather attribution

• Limits of adaptation vs mitigation debate

• Disaster risk reduction and climate resilience

#### UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 31 December 2025 Facts for Prelims (FFP)

Secondary Pollutants

Source: IE

Subject: Environment

Context: Recent analysis by the Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA) shows that secondary pollutants now account for nearly one-third of Delhi’s annual PM2.5 load.

About Secondary Pollutants:

What are secondary pollutants?

• Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly from a source; instead, they are formed in the atmosphere when primary pollutants (gases) undergo chemical reactions influenced by sunlight, humidity, temperature and stagnation.

• Unlike visible local emissions, they often build up downwind and over time, making control more complex.

Major secondary pollutants:

• Secondary particulate matter (PM2.5): Ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate.

• Ozone (O₃): Formed from nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) under sunlight.

• Acids: Sulfuric acid and nitric acid (contributors to acid rain).

• Photochemical smog components: Peroxyacetyl nitrates (PANs), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂).

How are secondary pollutants formed?

• Emission of precursor gases: SO₂ (coal-fired power plants, refineries), NOx (vehicles, power plants), ammonia (fertiliser use, livestock, sewage).

• Atmospheric transformation: SO₂ oxidises to sulfate → reacts with ammonia → ammonium sulfate. NOx oxidises to nitric acid → combines with ammonia → ammonium nitrate.

• SO₂ oxidises to sulfate → reacts with ammonia → ammonium sulfate.

• NOx oxidises to nitric acid → combines with ammonia → ammonium nitrate.

• Favourable weather conditions: High humidity, fog, low temperatures and low wind speeds accelerate these reactions, especially in winter, allowing particles to form within hours and remain airborne for days.

Implications:

• Regional and transboundary impact: Secondary aerosols can travel hundreds of kilometres, meaning Delhi’s air quality is affected by emissions from coal-dominated states beyond NCR.

• Severe winter smog: Moist, stagnant winter conditions sharply increase secondary PM2.5, explaining sudden pollution spikes even when local sources are restricted.

• Policy blind spots: Focus on visible PM10 or local sources alone is insufficient; control of precursor gases (SO₂, NOx, NH₃) is crucial.

• Health risks: Fine secondary particles penetrate deep into lungs, increasing risks of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.

National Technology Readiness Assessment Framework (NTRAF)

Source: PIB

Subject: Government scheme

Context: The Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India has unveiled the National Technology Readiness Assessment Framework (NTRAF) to create a uniform, evidence-based system for assessing technology maturity across India’s R&D ecosystem.

About National Technology Readiness Assessment Framework (NTRAF):

What it is?

• The National Technology Readiness Assessment Framework (NTRAF) is a standardised, objective framework to assess the maturity of technologies from early laboratory research to full commercial deployment using 9 Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs).

Ministry / Department:

• Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser (OPSA) to the Government of India

• Developed in collaboration with the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII)

• Establish a common language between researchers, investors and policymakers

• Enable evidence-based funding decisions under national R&D and mission-mode programmes

• Reduce the “Valley of Death” between TRL 4 and TRL 7 by de-risking promising deep-tech innovations

Key features:

• TRL-based assessment: Covers the full innovation cycle from Proof of Concept (TRL 1–3) to Prototype Development (TRL 4–6) and Operational Deployment (TRL 7–9).

• Objectivity over subjectivity: Uses structured, measurable checklists instead of narrative claims of readiness.

• Global best practices, Indian context: Adapted from international models (e.g., NASA TRLs) and customised for India’s research and industrial ecosystem.

• Sector-specific annexures: Tailored assessment pathways for domains such as Healthcare & Pharmaceuticals and Software, recognising sectoral differences.

• Self-assessment tool: Enables researchers and startups to identify technical gaps before applying for funding.

Significance:

• Improves efficiency of public R&D spending by aligning funding with actual technology maturity.

• Boosts private sector confidence by providing validated, investment-ready readiness benchmarks.

Copper

Source: ET

Subject: Economics

Context: Copper prices touched a record high of over USD 12,000 per tonne in 2025, driven by US tariff uncertainty, global supply disruptions and surging demand from AI, clean energy and EVs.

About Copper:

What it is?

• Copper (Cu) is a naturally occurring metallic element (Atomic number: 29) known for its excellent electrical and thermal conductivity.

• It is among the oldest metals used by humans and is central to modern industrial, digital and green economies.

Characteristics of Copper:

• Chemical characteristics:

• Symbol: Cu and Atomic weight: 63.546 amu High resistance to corrosion and oxidation Forms important alloys such as brass (Cu+Zn) and bronze (Cu+Sn)

• Symbol: Cu and Atomic weight: 63.546 amu

• High resistance to corrosion and oxidation

• Forms important alloys such as brass (Cu+Zn) and bronze (Cu+Sn)

• Physical characteristics:

• Excellent electrical and thermal conductivity (second only to silver) Ductile and malleable, enabling easy wiring and shaping Naturally reddish-brown; one of the few coloured metals

• Excellent electrical and thermal conductivity (second only to silver)

• Ductile and malleable, enabling easy wiring and shaping

• Naturally reddish-brown; one of the few coloured metals

• Unique properties:

• 100% recyclable without loss of quality Antimicrobial in nature, useful in healthcare settings Enhances energy efficiency, reducing CO₂ emissions over product life cycles

• 100% recyclable without loss of quality

• Antimicrobial in nature, useful in healthcare settings

• Enhances energy efficiency, reducing CO₂ emissions over product life cycles

Applications of Copper:

• Energy and power sector: Used extensively in power grids, transformers, renewable energy systems, and battery storage.

• Electric vehicles (EVs): EVs use over twice the copper of conventional vehicles due to motors, batteries and wiring.

• Digital and AI infrastructure: Data centres, especially hyperscale AI facilities, require massive copper volumes for cooling and power transmission.

• Construction and manufacturing: Plumbing, roofing, industrial machinery and electronics rely heavily on copper.

• Defence and healthcare: Used in defence electronics, ammunition and antimicrobial medical surfaces.

India and Copper: Current Status

• India is recognised copper as a critical mineral under its resource strategy.

• Over 90% dependence on imported copper concentrate

Major producers across globe: Chile, Peru, DR Congo, China, USA

PathGennie Software for Fast-Tracking Drug Discovery

Source: News on Air

Subject: Science and Technology

Context: The Ministry of Science and Technology has developed PathGennie, a new open-source computational software that significantly accelerates drug discovery by accurately simulating drug–protein unbinding.

About PathGennie Software for Fast-Tracking Drug Discovery:

What it is?

• PathGennie is an open-source computational framework designed to efficiently simulate rare molecular events, especially drug unbinding from protein targets, without introducing artificial distortions.

• It helps predict drug residence time, a key factor in drug efficacy and safety.

Developed by: Scientists at S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Kolkata

• To overcome limitations of traditional molecular dynamics simulations in capturing slow, rare molecular transitions.

• To provide physically accurate pathways for drug–protein interactions while reducing computational cost and time.

How it works?

• Instead of forcing molecules to move, the software lets them move naturally.

• It runs many tiny, short simulations at the same time to see which ones head in the right direction.

• Only the useful paths are continued, while the rest are stopped, saving time and computing power.

• This works like natural selection — the best paths survive without artificial pressure or heat.

• It can handle complex patterns, even those identified using artificial intelligence, making it very adaptable.

Applications:

• Predicts accurate drug unbinding pathways and residence times (e.g., imatinib–Abl kinase).

• Understanding protein–ligand kinetics for better drug design.

• Applicable to chemical reactions, catalysis, phase transitions and self-assembly processes.

Justice Mission 2025

Source: TH

Subject: International Relations, Miscellaneous

Context: China conducted large-scale live-fire military drills named “Justice Mission 2025” around Taiwan, including missile launches, fighter jet sorties, and naval deployments.

About Justice Mission 2025:

What it is?

• Justice Mission 2025 is a high-intensity, two-day PLA (People’s Liberation Army) military exercise involving live-fire missile launches, air and naval manoeuvres.

• It is designed to simulate blockade operations and precision strikes against Taiwan’s ports and maritime targets.

Location:

• Conducted around Taiwan, including waters to the north and south of the island.

• Missile launches observed from Pingtan Island, the closest Chinese territory to Taiwan.

Nations involved:

• China: People’s Liberation Army (ground forces, navy, air force, missile units).

• Taiwan: Target of the drills; responded with heightened military readiness.

• To send a deterrent signal against Taiwan’s independence assertions.

• To warn the US and its allies against military support and arms sales to Taiwan.

• To demonstrate China’s capability to blockade and isolate Taiwan during a conflict.

Key features:

• Live-fire missile launches targeting surrounding waters.

• Naval deployments simulating maritime blockades and anti-submarine warfare.

• Joint operations integrating air, sea, missile, and ground forces.

• One of the largest drills near Taiwan in recent years, indicating escalation.

Implications:

• Heightened regional tension: Raises the risk of miscalculation in the Taiwan Strait.

• US-China rivalry: Reinforces strategic competition over Taiwan’s security.

• East Asian security impact: Concerns for Japan, ASEAN, and global trade routes.

The drug-resistant fungal species *Candida auris*

Source: DD News

Subject: Science and Technology

Context: An Indian-led study has warned that Candida auris, a drug-resistant fungal pathogen, is becoming more virulent and spreading globally, with high mortality even after treatment.

About The drug-resistant fungal species *Candida auris**:*

What it is?

• Candida auris is a multidrug-resistant fungal pathogen that causes severe invasive infections, especially in hospitalised and immunocompromised patients.

• First identified in 2009, it is now classified as an emerging global health threat due to high fatality rates and treatment failure.

Vector / Reservoir:

• Primarily healthcare settings such as hospitals and long-term care facilities.

• Persists on human skin, medical devices, and inanimate surfaces for prolonged periods.

Symptoms:

• Symptoms vary by site of infection and often resemble bacterial sepsis, making detection difficult.

• Common signs include fever, chills, low blood pressure, tachycardia, and in severe cases, bloodstream infections (candidemia).

Key features:

• Multidrug resistance: Resistant to multiple antifungal classes, limiting treatment options.

• High virulence: Mortality often exceeds 50%, even with therapy.

• Morphological flexibility: Can switch from yeast form to filamentous growth, aiding invasion.

• Immune evasion: Adapts rapidly to host immune responses and environmental stress.

Transmission:

• Spreads through direct contact with infected or colonised individuals (even asymptomatic).

• Transmitted via contaminated surfaces, medical equipment, and invasive devices like catheters or ventilators.

#### UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 31 December 2025 Mapping:

Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary

Source: PP

Subject: Mapping

Context: The Bihar government has approved a revised proposal to notify Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary as a Tiger Reserve, which will now be sent to the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) for final clearance.

About Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary:

What it is?

• Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary is the largest wildlife sanctuary in Bihar, known for its rich biodiversity, forested plateaus and historical–archaeological heritage.

Located in: Kaimur and Rohtas districts of Bihar

• Situated in the Kaimur Range, covering parts of the Kaimur Plateau and Rohtas Plateau.

History:

• Established in 1979 as a wildlife sanctuary.

• Historically significant region with prehistoric cave paintings, megaliths, fossil sites, and forts such as Rohtasgarh Fort and Shergarh Fort.

• Long recognised for its ecological potential, with recent evidence of tiger movement prompting the tiger reserve proposal.

Key geological and physical features:

• Plateaued landscape of the Kaimur hills with steep escarpments and forested valleys

• Numerous waterfalls: Karkat, Telhar, Dhua Kund, Tutla Bhawani, Manjhar Kund, Kashish

• Lakes and water bodies: Anupam Lake, Karamchat Dam, Kohira Dam.

• Forest types: Tropical Dry Mixed Deciduous forests, Dry Sal forests, Boswellia forests, Dry Bamboo brakes

Significance:

• Biodiversity hotspot: Home to Bengal tiger, leopard, sloth bear, pangolin, sambar, chital, four-horned antelope, nilgai and over 70 resident bird species, with migratory birds from Central Asia in winter

• Tiger conservation potential: Large, contiguous forest landscape suitable for a viable tiger population and ecological corridors in eastern India

• Ecological balance: Helps maintain forest–river–plateau ecosystems of southwestern Bihar

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