UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 2 March 2026

UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 2 March 2026 covers important current affairs of the day, their backward linkages, their relevance for Prelims exam and MCQs on main articles

InstaLinks : Insta Links help you think beyond the current affairs issue and help you think multidimensionally to develop depth in your understanding of these issues. These linkages provided in this ‘hint’ format help you frame possible questions in your mind that might arise(or an examiner might imagine) from each current event. InstaLinks also connect every issue to their static or theoretical background.

Table of Contents

GS Paper 2 :

• Constitutional Morality

Constitutional Morality

• The Iran-Israel War

The Iran-Israel War

Content for Mains Enrichment (CME):

• SEBI Mandates Registered Name & Number Disclosure on Social Media

SEBI Mandates Registered Name & Number Disclosure on Social Media

Facts for Prelims (FFP):

• 25 Years of Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE)

25 Years of Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE)

• Centre designates Legacy Thrust Territories

Centre designates Legacy Thrust Territories

• Space Re-entry

Space Re-entry

• Operation Epic Fury

Operation Epic Fury

• Israel’s Multi-Layered Defence System

Israel’s Multi-Layered Defence System

Mapping:

UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 2 March 2026

GS Paper 2 :

Constitutional Morality

Source: TH

Subject: Polity

Context: Senior advocate Kapil Sibal, in a 2026 dialogue with N. Ram, highlighted a complete breakdown of constitutional machinery in India, arguing that constitutional morality must transcend political friction to ensure justice without fear or favor.

About Constitutional Morality:

What is Constitutional Morality?

• Constitutional morality refers to the adherence to the core philosophies and spirit of the Constitution rather than just its literal text.

• It is the bridge between the law and ethics, requiring public officials and citizens to act in a way that preserves democratic institutions and protects individual liberties against the tyranny of the majority.

Key Features:

• Adherence to Constitutional Values: Prioritizing justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity over popular or religious sentiment.

• Institutional Restraint: Ensuring that no branch of government (Executive, Legislature, or Judiciary) oversteps its bounds.

• Protection of Minorities: Safeguarding the rights of marginalized groups from majoritarian impulses.

• Non-Arbitrariness: Guaranteeing that state actions are based on reasoned law rather than the whims of those in power.

• Public Conscience: Cultivating a civic culture where the habits of the people align with democratic norms.

Importance in Modern Times:

• Check on Majoritarianism: It prevents the rule of the many from becoming the oppression of the few.

E.g. The Supreme Court’s scrutiny of state anti-conversion laws ensures that individual choice in marriage isn’t sacrificed to communal narratives.

• Upholding Rule of Law: It ensures that the law is applied equally, regardless of political affiliation.

E.g. The granting of bail to activists and journalists by higher courts, despite stringent laws like the UAPA, reaffirms that liberty is the rule and jail is the exception.

• Ensuring Accountability: It mandates that the Executive remains answerable to the people and the law.

E.g. The 2024 judgment striking down the Electoral Bond Scheme highlighted the need for transparency in political funding to maintain a level playing field.

• Protecting Dissent: It recognizes that a healthy democracy requires the voice of the Opposition and civil society.

E.g. Court interventions regarding the suspension of a record number of Opposition MPs from Parliament in late 2023 emphasize the need for parliamentary deliberation.

• Adapting to Social Change: It allows the Constitution to be a living document that addresses modern ethical dilemmas.

E.g. The recognition of the Right to Privacy and the decriminalization of consensual same-sex acts (Navtej Singh Johar case) reflect evolving moral standards.

Challenges Associated:

• Judicial Overreach vs. Underreach: The thin line between interpreting the law and legislating from the bench (or failing to act).

E.g. Critics point to the sealed cover jurisprudence where the court accepts government info in secret, potentially undermining the principle of open justice.

• Executive Dominance: When a single party holds a massive majority, the legislature often becomes a rubber stamp.

E.g. The passage of significant bills (like the new Criminal Codes or Telecommunications Act) through voice votes without extensive debate in 2023-24.

• Politicization of the Judiciary: Perceived bias in case listing or post-retirement appointments can erode trust.

E.g. Public debates surrounding the master of roster powers, where specific sensitive cases are assigned to certain benches, leading to allegations of favoritism.

• Erosion of Federalism: Use of central agencies or Governors to interfere in state administration.

E.g. Frequent friction between Governors and elected state governments in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and West Bengal regarding the passage of state bills.

• Weaponization of Law: Using colonial-era or stringent laws to silence critics.

E.g. The frequent use of Sedition (now under the new Nyaya Sanhita) and PMLA (Money Laundering) provisions to arrest political opponents before trials begin.

Way Ahead:

• Judicial Independence: Establish a transparent mechanism for judicial appointments and case listings to restore public faith.

• Strengthening Parliamentary Debate: Ensure that all major legislations undergo scrutiny by Standing Committees before being passed.

• Civic Education: Integrate constitutional values into school curricula (without the intent to intimidate specific institutions) to foster habits of democracy.

• Police and Administrative Reforms: Insulate investigative agencies from political interference to ensure justice without fear or favor.

• Protection of Federal Spirit: Establish clearer guidelines for the role of Governors to prevent them from acting as political agents of the Centre.

Conclusion:

Constitutional morality is the lifeblood of a democracy; without it, the Constitution becomes a mere skeleton of words. The ultimate test of this morality is the delivery of justice that is unswayed by the powerful. For India to remain a vibrant republic, its institutions must rediscover the courage to interpret the law for the greater good of all citizens, not just the majority.

Q. “Institutional dissent is the judiciary’s most potent safeguard against democratic backsliding”. Critically examine this statement. Analyse how dissent shapes constitutional morality. Evaluate its role in preserving public confidence. (15 M)

The Iran-Israel War

Source: CNN

Subject: International Relations

Context: The United States and Israel launched a massive joint military operation, Operation Epic Fury (or Operation Genesis), against Iran.

• The strikes resulted in the assassination of Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei and approximately 40 high-ranking officials, triggering a multi-front regional war

About The Iran-Israel War:

What it is?

• This conflict marks a departure from decades of shadow war into a direct, high-intensity confrontation. Initiated as a pre-emptive strike by the Trump administration and the Netanyahu government, it aims for regime change in Tehran and the total dismantling of Iran’s nuclear and ballistic missile capabilities.

• Iran has responded with Operation Truthful Promise 4, launching hundreds of drones and missiles at Israel and US-allied Gulf nations.

History & Causes of Tensions:

• The 1953 Coup: The CIA-backed overthrow of democratically elected PM Mohammad Mosaddegh planted the seeds of anti-US sentiment.

• The 1979 Islamic Revolution: The shift from a natural alliance under the Shah to a clerical regime that views the US as the Great Satan and Israel as an illegitimate regime.

• Nuclear Ambitions: Decades of dispute over Iran’s uranium enrichment, which Israel views as an existential threat and the US sees as a global security risk.

• Regional Proxy Wars: Persistent friction caused by Iran’s Axis of Resistance (Hezbollah, Hamas, Houthis) operating against US and Israeli interests.

• Failure of Diplomacy: The collapse of various nuclear deal iterations and failed negotiations in early 2026 led to the current military escalation.

Recent Events Contributing to War:

• Assassination of Ali Khamenei: A joint US-Israeli daytime airstrike on February 28, 2026, destroyed the Supreme Leader’s compound in Tehran, killing him and his family.

E.g. President Trump confirmed the operation, calling it justice and a move to facilitate regime change in Iran.

• Retaliatory Strikes on GCC States: Iran launched hundreds of missiles at the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Bahrain, and Kuwait.

E.g. Tehran targeted these nations for hosting US military bases, such as Al Udeid in Qatar and the 5th Fleet in Bahrain.

• Economic Disruption at Chokepoints: The Strait of Hormuz has become a combat zone, with the US reporting the sinking of nine Iranian naval vessels.

E.g. This maritime escalation immediately caused global oil prices to soar and grounded international flights across Middle Eastern hubs like Dubai.

• Domestic Unrest in Iran: Celebrations and mourning simultaneously broke out in Iranian cities following the news of the leadership’s demise.

E.g. Reports from Tehran describe a spontaneous reaction where some citizens celebrated the death of a dictator while others demanded severe revenge.

• Spread to Lebanon: Israel began striking Hezbollah targets in Beirut on March 2, 2026, after the group launched rockets in solidarity with Iran.

E.g. The IDF stated these were pre-emptive and retaliatory strikes to prevent a massive northern front from opening.

Challenges Associated to the World:

• Global Energy Crisis: The threat to the Strait of Hormuz risks a permanent spike in fuel costs, threatening global inflation.

E.g. Oil prices surged on March 2, 2026, as shipping insurance for the Gulf became prohibitively expensive.

• Regional Polarization: Gulf states like Qatar and Oman, which previously balanced ties, are now forced to pick sides.

E.g. The joint statement by the US and six Arab allies condemning Iran signals a collapse of the hedging strategy.

• Humanitarian Crises: Intense urban bombing in Tehran and retaliatory strikes on civilian areas in Israel and the Gulf are causing high casualty rates.

E.g. A strike on an Iranian school reported 165 casualties, while missiles hit residential hotels in Dubai.

• Great Power Involvement: The risk of Russia or China intervening to protect their energy interests or strategic partners.

E.g. Vladimir Putin condemned the assassination of Khamenei as a cynical murder and a violation of international law.

• Security of Nuclear Sites: The ongoing bombardment of Iranian territory raises the risk of environmental disaster if nuclear facilities are compromised.

E.g. The IAEA has called a special session for March 2nd to discuss the status of Iran’s nuclear reactors under fire.

Way Ahead:

• Immediate Ceasefire: Urgent UN Security Council intervention is needed to halt the Epic Fury operation and Iranian retaliations.

• Succession Management: International monitors must watch the Assembly of Experts in Iran to see if a moderate or a hardline IRGC military junta takes power.

• Protection of Maritime Trade: Establishing a neutral international naval task force to keep the Strait of Hormuz open for non-combatant commercial vessels.

• Humanitarian Corridors: Opening safe zones for Iranian civilians and foreign nationals trapped in the Gulf conflict zones.

• Return to the Table: Using mediators like Switzerland or the UN to establish a hotline between the US and the transitional Iranian government to prevent total regional collapse.

Conclusion:

The death of Ali Khamenei marks the end of an era and the beginning of a highly volatile and unpredictable chapter in Middle Eastern history. While the US and Israel aim for a New Middle East, the immediate result is a region on fire, with global economic and security systems under unprecedented strain. The coming weeks will determine if this is a short, sharp transition or the start of a multi-decade regional war.

Q. The Iran-Israel conflict is redrawing West Asia’s strategic map amid a fragmented global order. Enumerate the key drivers of this shift. Evaluate the risks it poses for India’s energy and trade security. Suggest India’s optimal diplomatic posture. (15 M)

#### UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 2 March 2026 Content for Mains Enrichment (CME)

SEBI Mandates Registered Name & Number Disclosure on Social Media

Context: SEBI has issued a new circular mandating all SEBI-registered market intermediaries to disclose their registered name and registration number while posting securities-related content on social media.

About SEBI Mandates Registered Name & Number Disclosure on Social Media:

What it is?

• A regulatory directive issued by the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) requiring all SEBI-regulated entities and their agents to prominently display their registered identity and registration number on social media platforms while sharing securities market-related content.

• To help investors clearly distinguish between authorized SEBI-regulated entities and unregistered or misleading financial influencers, thereby improving transparency and trust in digital investment communication.

Key Features:

• Mandatory Identity Disclosure: Registered name and SEBI registration number must appear on social media profiles and at the beginning of each securities-related post or video.

• Wide Coverage: Applies to stockbrokers, mutual funds, investment advisers, research analysts, portfolio managers, AIFs, AMCs, REITs, InvITs and their distributors/agents.

• Broad Platform Scope: Includes YouTube, Instagram, WhatsApp, Telegram, X, Facebook, LinkedIn, Reddit, Threads and even closed or semi-closed groups.

• Multiple Registration Rule: Entities with multiple registrations must provide a web link listing all registrations; individual posts need only relevant registration details.

Significance:

• Investor Protection: Reduces misinformation and fake financial advice by enabling easy verification of regulated entities.

• Market Transparency: Strengthens accountability and credibility in digital financial communication under SEBI’s Ease of Doing Investment initiative.

Relevance in UPSC Exam Syllabus

• GS Paper 3 – Indian Economy

• Capital markets and financial sector regulation. Role and functions of regulatory bodies like SEBI. Investor protection and financial market reforms.

• Capital markets and financial sector regulation.

• Role and functions of regulatory bodies like SEBI.

• Investor protection and financial market reforms.

• GS Paper 2 – Governance

• Regulatory governance and transparency mechanisms. Digital regulation and consumer protection in online spaces.

• Regulatory governance and transparency mechanisms.

• Digital regulation and consumer protection in online spaces.

UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS –2 March 2026 Facts for Prelims (FFP)

25 Years of Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE)

Source: PIB

Subject: Miscellaneous

Context: The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) under the Ministry of Power commemorated its 25th Foundation Day, marking a major milestone in India’s energy-efficiency journey.

About 25 Years of Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE):

What it is?

• The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) is a statutory body under the Ministry of Power, responsible for promoting energy efficiency and reducing energy intensity across sectors of the Indian economy.

• It acts as India’s nodal institution for designing and implementing energy conservation policies and programmes.

Established in:

• Established: 1 March 2002

• Legal Basis: Energy Conservation Act, 2001

• Parent Ministry: Ministry of Power, Government of India

Headquarters: New Delhi, India

Brief History:

• Created after the enactment of the Energy Conservation Act, 2001 to institutionalise energy efficiency in India.

• Over two decades, BEE expanded from appliance labeling initiatives to large-scale industrial, building, and transport efficiency programmes.

• Key milestones include the Standards & Labelling Programme, Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) Scheme, and transition toward market-based carbon mechanisms such as the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS).

Aim / Mission:

• Reduce the energy intensity of the Indian economy.

• Promote self-regulation and market-based mechanisms for energy conservation.

• Enable sustainable development through efficient energy use across all sectors.

Key Functions:

• Policy Leadership: Provides recommendations and direction for national energy conservation strategies.

• Programme Implementation: Designs and coordinates schemes such as PAT, Standards & Labelling, and energy efficiency in buildings and industries.

• Monitoring & Verification: Develops systems for measuring and verifying energy savings.

• Standards & Certification: Establishes testing and certification protocols for appliances and equipment.

• Energy Audits: Mandates audits for designated energy-intensive industries.

• Research & Capacity Building: Promotes R&D and strengthens consultancy services in energy conservation.

• Consumer Awareness: Encourages informed purchasing through star labelling and digital tools like the Star Label App.

Significance:

• Energy Security: Reduces demand growth by conserving electricity, lowering dependence on additional generation capacity.

• Climate Commitments: Supports India’s goals of lowering emissions intensity and increasing non-fossil energy share.

Centre designates Legacy Thrust Territories

Source: NIE

Subject: Security

Context: The Ministry of Home Affairs has introduced the concept of Legacy Thrust Territories to prevent the resurgence of Left Wing Extremism (LWE) after major operational gains against Naxalism.

About Centre designates Legacy Thrust Territories:

What it is?

• Legacy Thrust Territories are previously Naxal-affected districts identified by the Union Government for continued security presence and focused developmental intervention, even after major decline in insurgent activities.

• The framework ensures that gains achieved against Left Wing Extremism are not reversed.

Regions Designated:

• Earlier, nearly 200 districts were affected by LWE (around 2000).

• By 2025, the number declined to 38 districts.

• Currently, only 7 districts remain on the LWE list: 5 in Chhattisgarh 1 in Jharkhand 1 in Odisha

• 5 in Chhattisgarh

• 1 in Jharkhand

• 1 in Odisha

• These and other formerly affected districts are being brought under the Legacy Thrust framework for sustained monitoring.

• Prevent resurgence of Naxalism after operational successes.

• Ensure smooth transition from security-led operations to governance-led development.

• Consolidate peace through infrastructure, administration, and socio-economic integration.

Key Features:

• Sustained Security Deployment: Continued presence of central forces to avoid security vacuums.

• Development Push: Focus on roads, telecom connectivity, governance delivery, and public services.

• Phased Redeployment: Gradual withdrawal/redeployment instead of abrupt exit.

• Centre–State Coordination: Joint strategy with operational freedom for security forces.

• Administrative Strengthening: Improving bureaucratic responsiveness in former conflict zones.

• Monitoring of Extremist Propaganda: Increased intelligence surveillance, including digital spaces.

• Rehabilitation Focus: Encouraging surrender of remaining cadres alongside targeted operations.

Significance:

• Prevents Relapse: Addresses historical risk of insurgency revival after security gains.

• Governance Consolidation: Bridges administrative gaps that extremists exploit.

Space Re-entry

Source: TH

Subject: Science and Technology

Context: Space re-entry has gained attention with advancing human spaceflight missions, especially India’s Gaganyaan programme, which focuses on safely returning astronauts to Earth.

About Space Re-entry:

What is Space Re-entry?

• Space re-entry refers to the process by which a spacecraft or crew capsule returns from orbit and safely passes through Earth’s atmosphere to land on the surface.

What is a Re-entry Corridor?

The re-entry corridor is a narrow, precisely defined atmospheric window through which a spacecraft must enter Earth’s atmosphere to ensure safe return.

• Too shallow (Overshoot): The spacecraft may skip off the atmosphere and return to space.

• Too steep (Undershoot): Extreme heat and deceleration forces can destroy the vehicle or endanger the crew.

Hence, maintaining the correct entry angle is critical for survival.

How Space Re-entry Works?

• De-orbit Burn: The spacecraft turns opposite to its direction of travel and fires engines to reduce orbital velocity, allowing gravity to pull it into the atmosphere.

• Atmospheric Aerobraking: Atmospheric drag converts kinetic energy into heat, slowing the capsule rapidly.

• Thermal Protection: Heat shields protect the capsule using ablation or insulation to withstand temperatures generated during re-entry.

• Controlled Guidance: Semi-ballistic design and attitude control help maintain the vehicle within the re-entry corridor and guide it toward the landing zone.

• Communication Blackout: Ionised plasma forms around the capsule, temporarily blocking radio communication.

• Parachute Deployment & Landing: At lower altitudes, multi-stage parachutes reduce speed for safe splashdown or landing.

What is a Semi-Ballistic Body?

• A semi-ballistic body is a re-entry vehicle that is not fully steerable like an aircraft but is also not completely passive like a falling object.

• By flying at a controlled angle of attack (created through an offset centre of gravity), it generates limited aerodynamic lift in addition to drag.

• This lift allows the capsule to perform small steering corrections, control descent path, and accurately reach a designated landing zone during atmospheric re-entry.

What is a Communication Blackout?

• A communication blackout occurs during re-entry when extreme heat ionises surrounding air, creating a plasma layer around the spacecraft. This plasma sheath blocks or reflects radio signals, temporarily preventing communication between the spacecraft and ground stations.

• Communication resumes once the vehicle slows down and the plasma dissipates at lower altitudes.

How will the Gaganyaan Crew Module Re-enter?

• The Orbital Module consists of a Crew Module (CM) and a Service Module (SM).

• Re-entry begins with a de-orbit burn performed by the SM to reduce orbital velocity.

• After de-orbiting, the Service Module separates and burns up in the atmosphere.

• The Crew Module enters Earth’s atmosphere within a carefully controlled re-entry corridor to avoid overshoot or undershoot.

• Operating as a semi-ballistic body, it performs controlled manoeuvres using thrusters to maintain trajectory.

• A robust thermal protection system shields the module from intense heating.

• At lower altitudes, a three-stage parachute system deploys to reduce speed.

• The capsule finally performs a safe splashdown in the Bay of Bengal, the designated recovery zone for the mission.

Operation Epic Fury

Source: TN

Subject: International Relations

Context: The United States military has officially named its recent strikes on Iran as Operation Epic Fury, amid escalating tensions over Iran’s nuclear programme and regional security concerns.

About Operation Epic Fury:

What it is?

• Operation Epic Fury is the codename adopted by the Pentagon for US military operations targeting Iranian military infrastructure, carried out in coordination with Israeli strikes.

• It represents a large-scale military campaign aimed at weakening perceived threats posed by Iran’s military and strategic capabilities.

Nations Involved:

• United States – Led and officially named the operation.

• Israel – Conducted coordinated strikes alongside US forces.

• Iran – Targeted country; responded with retaliatory actions.

• Neutralise perceived military and missile threats.

• Constrain Iran’s nuclear and strategic capabilities.

• Strengthen regional security from the perspective of US–Israel strategic interests.

Key Features:

• Codename Formalisation: Pentagon officially designated the operation as Operation Epic Fury, indicating a major organised military campaign.

• Coordinated Strikes: Conducted jointly with Israel against multiple targets in Iran.

• Precision Military Operations: Included air and missile strikes targeting military infrastructure and strategic assets.

• High Regional Impact: Triggered retaliatory responses and heightened military alerts across the Middle East.

• Escalation of US–Iran Tensions: Occurs amid long-standing disputes over Iran’s nuclear programme and regional influence.

Significance:

• Major Geopolitical Escalation: Signals a sharp rise in military confrontation in West Asia.

• Regional Security Implications: Raises risks of wider conflict involving Gulf states and allied forces.

Israel’s Multi-Layered Defence System

Source: DD News

Subject: Security

Context: Fresh hostilities involving Iran, Israel, and a U.S.-led coalition have renewed global attention on Israel’s multi-layered missile defence architecture amid large-scale missile and drone attacks.

About Israel’s Multi-Layered Defence System:

What it is?

• Israel’s multi-layered defence is an integrated air and missile defence architecture designed to intercept aerial threats at different ranges, altitudes, and flight phases.

• It combines space/long-range interception, mid-range missile defence, short-range rocket protection, and directed-energy systems, supported by advanced radar and command networks.

Key Defence Security Systems:

• Arrow System (Arrow-2 & Arrow-3)

• Long-range missile defence developed by Israel with U.S. cooperation.

• Arrow-3 intercepts missiles outside the atmosphere (exo-atmospheric), while Arrow-2 operates within the atmosphere.

• Designed mainly against medium- and long-range ballistic missile threats.

• David’s Sling

• Mid-range interceptor system designed to neutralize ballistic missiles (100–200 km range), cruise missiles, and aircraft.

• Uses Stunner interceptors with high precision targeting.

• Iron Dome

• Short-range defence system operational since 2011.

• Intercepts rockets, mortars, and drones using radar-guided Tamir interceptors.

• Selectively engages only threats projected to hit populated areas, improving efficiency.

• Iron Beam

• High-energy laser defence system declared operational in late 2025.

• Uses directed energy to disable drones, rockets, and mortars at low cost compared to missile interceptors.

• THAAD (U.S.-supplied)

• Terminal High Altitude Area Defense system deployed to enhance protection against ballistic missiles in their terminal phase.

• Adds an additional high-altitude interception layer.

• Air-to-Air Defence

• Israeli fighter jets and helicopters use air-to-air missiles to intercept incoming drones and airborne threats.

Significance:

• Multiple interception layers increase probability of successful defence against diverse threats including ballistic missiles and drone swarms.

• Enhances national security, reduces damage from missile barrages, and provides decision-makers more response time during conflicts.

#### UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 2 March 2026 Mapping:

Source: TOI

Subject: Mapping

Context: Reports claiming the death of Iran’s Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei during U.S.–Israel strikes have intensified global attention on Iran’s political future and regional stability.

About Iran:

What it is?

• Iran (officially the Islamic Republic of Iran) is a major West Asian country with a long civilizational history dating back to the ancient Persian Empire.

• Since the 1979 Islamic Revolution, it has functioned as an Islamic republic combining republican institutions with clerical authority, where the Supreme Leader holds ultimate power.

Location:

• Located in Southwestern Asia (West Asia / Middle East).

• Strategically positioned between Central Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East, overlooking key maritime routes in the Persian Gulf.

Capital: Tehran

Bordering Nations:

• Azerbaijan, Armenia, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Turkey, and Iraq.

It also has coastlines along:

• Caspian Sea, Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman.

History:

• Ancient centre of the Persian (Achaemenid) Empire beginning around 550 BCE.

• Influenced by Arab conquest and the spread of Islam in the 7th century CE.

• Safavid dynasty (16th century) established Twelver Shi’ism as the state religion.

• Pahlavi monarchy (1925–1979) attempted modernization but was overthrown during the 1979 Islamic Revolution led by Ayatollah Khomeini.

• Since then, Iran has emerged as a major regional power with significant influence through the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) and its regional alliances.

Key Features:

• Dominated by a central arid plateau surrounded by mountain ranges.

• Zagros Mountains: Stretch northwest–southeast; major barrier and resource region.

• Alborz Mountains: Located near the Caspian Sea; includes Mount Damavand, Iran’s highest peak.

• Large deserts: Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Lut.

• Highly seismic region with frequent earthquakes due to tectonic activity.

• Important water bodies include Lake Urmia and rivers like Karun and Sefid.

Significance:

• Controls access near the Strait of Hormuz, through which a major share of global oil trade passes.

• Possesses vast reserves of oil and natural gas, influencing global energy markets.

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