UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 2 December 2025

UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 2 December 2025 covers important current affairs of the day, their backward linkages, their relevance for Prelims exam and MCQs on main articles

InstaLinks : Insta Links help you think beyond the current affairs issue and help you think multidimensionally to develop depth in your understanding of these issues. These linkages provided in this ‘hint’ format help you frame possible questions in your mind that might arise(or an examiner might imagine) from each current event. InstaLinks also connect every issue to their static or theoretical background.

Table of Contents

GS Paper 3 : (UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 2 December 2025)

• Nuclear Power in Space

Nuclear Power in Space

• Bioremediation

Bioremediation

Content for Mains Enrichment (CME):

• Uranium Contamination in Delhi

Uranium Contamination in Delhi

Facts for Prelims (FFP):

• The International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International IDEA)

The International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International IDEA)

• Masala Bond

Masala Bond

• Sanchar Saathi App

Sanchar Saathi App

• Polygamy in India

Polygamy in India

• India Re-Elected to UNESCO Executive Board for 2025–29

India Re-Elected to UNESCO Executive Board for 2025–29

• 50th anniversary of the Biological Weapons Convention

50th anniversary of the Biological Weapons Convention

Mapping:

• Paraná Valles

Paraná Valles

UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 2 December 2025

#### GS Paper 3:

Nuclear Power in Space

Source: TH

Subject: Science and Technology

Context: The U.S. has announced plans to deploy a small nuclear reactor on the Moon by the early 2030s, marking the first attempt to establish permanent nuclear power beyond Earth.

About Nuclear Power in Space:

Need for Nuclear Power in Space:

• Solar unreliability on Moon/Mars: Long lunar nights, dust storms and weak polar sunlight make solar energy inconsistent, limiting continuous operations.

• Need for continuous high-density power: Human habitats, life-support, labs and manufacturing require stable, uninterrupted energy far beyond what solar arrays can supply.

• ISRU requires megawatt-scale energy: Extracting ice, producing water, oxygen and rocket fuel needs large, steady power that solar cannot reliably generate.

• Nuclear reactors provide compact stability: They generate dense, weather-independent energy in small footprints, enabling long-term missions and remote operations.

Applications of Nuclear Power in Space:

• Habitats on Moon and Mars: Reactors power life-support, thermal control, communications and scientific equipment essential for human survival.

• ISRU for water and fuel production: Nuclear power enables continuous extraction and processing of ice into water, oxygen and propellants for return missions.

• Mobility and robotics support: Supports recharging rovers, powering drilling units and enabling long-range autonomous surface exploration.

• Deep-space propulsion – NTP: Nuclear thermal systems heat propellant for faster Mars transit, reducing astronaut exposure to cosmic radiation.

• Deep-space propulsion – NEP: Reactor-generated electricity drives ion engines, offering long-duration thrust for probes and cargo missions.

• Scientific missions in harsh regions: Provides reliable energy to explore shadowed craters, polar regions or deep-space environments where sunlight is scarce.

Existing International Laws Governing Space Nuclear Power:

• UN Principles (1992) – procedural safeguards: Mandate safe design, pre-launch risk analysis and emergency reporting, but focus mainly on power-generation reactors.

• Outer Space Treaty (1967): Bans nuclear weapons in orbit but allows peaceful nuclear reactors, creating ambiguity in propulsion applications.

• Liability Convention (1972): Covers damage caused by space objects but offers unclear guidance on accidents involving reactors beyond Earth orbit.

• NPT – nuclear material control: Restricts weaponisation but leaves gaps in oversight for space reactors or nuclear propulsion systems.

Challenges:

• Safety risks during launch/operation: Accidents during launch or re-entry could disperse radioactive material, posing transboundary hazards.

• Regulatory vacuum: Lack of enforceable international standards leaves reactor safety and disposal practices largely unregulated.

• Environmental contamination risks: Nuclear fallout could irreversibly alter pristine lunar or Martian environments before scientific study is complete.

• Geopolitical tensions: Deploying nuclear systems may spark suspicion, competition or militarisation among major spacefaring nations.

• Planetary protection concerns: Undefined “safety zones” around reactors risk becoming de facto territorial claims, conflicting with space law.

Way Ahead:

• Update UN Principles to include propulsion reactors: Introduce binding standards for NTP/NEP design, safety limits and radiation containment for modern missions.

• Create binding environmental protocols: Set global rules for safe launches, contamination prevention, waste disposal and handling of reactor end-of-life.

• Establish an IAEA-like oversight mechanism: A multilateral body should certify reactor designs, verify safety compliance and enhance transparency among nations.

• Promote international transparency and cooperation: Joint missions, open data-sharing and multinational governance can reduce mistrust and ensure safe innovation.

• Foster responsible innovation: Balance ambition with strict ethics, biosafety and planetary protection to prevent conflict and protect ecosystems.

Conclusion:

Nuclear power is becoming essential for long-term human presence and industrial activity beyond Earth. However, the absence of strong global governance mechanisms poses significant safety and legal risks. A modern, comprehensive regulatory framework is critical to ensure that nuclear technologies enable peaceful exploration rather than trigger conflict or contamination.

Q. The consolidation of space and nuclear capabilities in the early 1970s marked a turning point in India’s scientific self-reliance. Discuss with focus on institutional reforms and strategic motivations. (10 M)

Bioremediation

Source: TH

Subject: Environment

Context: India’s growing pollution burden and recent expert discussions highlight the urgent need for bioremediation as a sustainable method to clean contaminated soil, water and waste sites.

About Bioremediation:

What it is?

• Bioremediation means using living organisms—bacteria, fungi, algae, or plants—to break down, transform or detoxify environmental pollutants such as oil, pesticides, heavy metals, plastics and industrial chemicals.

• Microbes metabolise contaminants as food, converting them into harmless by-products like water, carbon dioxide, organic acids, or non-leachable metal forms.

Types of Bioremediations:

• In-situ Bioremediation (on-site)

Pollutants are treated directly at the contaminated location.

• Bioventing: Injecting air + nutrients to stimulate indigenous microbes in unsaturated soil.

• Air Sparging: Pumping air into groundwater to oxygenate microbes and strip volatile pollutants.

• Biobarriers/Biowalls: Permeable trenches where microbes degrade contaminants as groundwater flows through.

• Water Recirculation Systems: Extracting contaminated water, treating it and reinjecting it to stimulate biodegradation.

• Ex-situ Bioremediation (off-site) Contaminated soil or water is removed, treated in controlled reactors, and returned after cleaning—used when pollutant levels are very high or conditions cannot be controlled on-site.

• Contaminated soil or water is removed, treated in controlled reactors, and returned after cleaning—used when pollutant levels are very high or conditions cannot be controlled on-site.

Need for Bioremediation in India:

• Growing Pollution Burden: Rivers such as Ganga, Yamuna and Cauvery receive massive loads of untreated sewage and industrial effluents.

• Industrial Contamination: Urban and industrial sites show oil spills, heavy metals, pesticides, plastics, hydrocarbons, and hazardous waste.

• High Cost of Conventional Clean-up: Mechanical and chemical remediation are expensive, energy-intensive and generate secondary pollution.

• India’s Biodiversity Advantage: India hosts diverse indigenous microbes adapted to heat, salinity and pollutants, making bioremediation more effective than imported technologies.

• Sustainable, Scalable Solution: Bioremediation is cheaper, eco-friendly, minimally invasive and suitable for large polluted landscapes.

Current Status in India:

Government & Institutional Efforts:

• Department of Biotechnology (DBT): Supports R&D under its Clean Technology Programme.

• CSIR–NEERI: Nodal agency for bioremediation pilot projects across contaminated sites.

• IITs: Research on oil-absorbing nanocomposites, pollutant-eating bacteria, and water-purifying microbial consortia.

Technological Advances:

• Use of genetically modified (GM) microbes to degrade persistent pollutants (plastics, hydrocarbons).

Best Practice:

• Japan: Integrates plant–microbe systems for urban waste cleanup.

• EU: Funds multi-country bioremediation research for oil spills and mining sites.

Challenges in Adoption:

• Lack of Site-specific Data: Pollutants vary by region; microbial solutions must be customised.

• No Unified National Standards: India lacks universal bioremediation protocols and certification systems.

• Complex Pollutant Mixtures: Mixed contaminants require microbial consortia, not single strains.

• Regulatory Gaps for GM Microbes: Use of engineered organisms risks ecological imbalance without strict biosafety oversight.

• Slow Process & Unpredictability: Bioremediation takes time and depends on environmental conditions—temperature, pH, oxygen, nutrients.

Way Forward:

• Create National Standards: Develop protocols, guidelines and certification for microbial formulations and site assessment.

• Establish Regional Bioremediation Hubs: Link universities with industries and local governments to tailor solutions for polluted sites.

• Invest in Biosafety & Monitoring: Strengthen regulation of GM microbes and ensure long-term ecological monitoring.

• Integrate with National Missions:

• Swachh Bharat Mission Namami Gange Urban waste management and Smart Cities

• Swachh Bharat Mission

• Namami Gange

• Urban waste management and Smart Cities

• Promote Public Awareness: Educate communities on the safety and benefits of microbial technologies.

Conclusion:

Bioremediation offers India a low-cost, sustainable and scientifically robust pathway to restore polluted ecosystems. With rising industrialisation and complex waste streams, microbial solutions are not optional but essential. A coordinated national strategy—grounded in standards, biosafety and innovation—can transform India’s environmental future.

Q. Bioremediation is a promising approach for cleaning up polluted environments, offering several advantages. However, it also has limitations and challenges that need to be considered. Examine. (250 words)

#### UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 2 December 2025 Content for Mains Enrichment (CME)

Uranium Contamination in Delhi

Context: New groundwater testing by the Central Ground Water Board shows rising uranium levels in Delhi, with 13–15% of samples showing elevated contamination.

About Uranium Contamination in Delhi:

What it is?

• Uranium contamination refers to the presence of uranium— a naturally occurring radioactive heavy metal— in groundwater at levels above permissible limits for safe drinking water.

Permissible limit of uranium in drinking water is:

• World Health Organization (WHO) guideline 30 micrograms per litre (µg/L) Equivalent to 03 milligrams per litre (mg/L).

• 30 micrograms per litre (µg/L)

• Equivalent to 03 milligrams per litre (mg/L).

• BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) – IS 10500:2012 (Revised) India now follows the same benchmark: Acceptable limit = 0.03 mg/L (30 µg/L)

• India now follows the same benchmark:

• Acceptable limit = 0.03 mg/L (30 µg/L)

Causes of Rising Uranium in Groundwater:

• Agricultural inputs: Excessive use of phosphate fertilisers, which contain trace uranium, gradually leaches into soil and aquifers.

• Industrial and anthropogenic sources: Industrial waste and effluents may release uranium and heavy metals into surrounding groundwater systems.

• Natural geological factors: Aquifers containing uranium-bearing rocks release the metal through rock–water interactions, especially in deep, over-extracted groundwater zones.

Implications for Health, Environment and Policy:

• Health Impacts:

• Kidney damage and impaired renal function with long-term ingestion. Increased risk of kidney and urinary tract cancers. Uranium may bind with bone tissue, affecting long-term bone health.

• Kidney damage and impaired renal function with long-term ingestion.

• Increased risk of kidney and urinary tract cancers.

• Uranium may bind with bone tissue, affecting long-term bone health.

• Environmental Implications:

• Persistent contamination reduces aquifer quality, straining already limited freshwater resources. Can trigger cumulative pollution cycles alongside nitrate and fluoride contamination detected in the same survey.

• Persistent contamination reduces aquifer quality, straining already limited freshwater resources.

• Can trigger cumulative pollution cycles alongside nitrate and fluoride contamination detected in the same survey.

Relevance in UPSC Exam Syllabus:

• GS Paper 1 – Geography

• Groundwater resources, aquifer systems, water scarcity, water pollution trends in India.

• Groundwater resources, aquifer systems, water scarcity, water pollution trends in India.

• GS Paper 2 – Governance & Social Justice

• Public health governance, urban service delivery, environmental regulations, role of public institutions (CGWB, DJB). Citizen rights and state responsibility in ensuring safe drinking water.

• Public health governance, urban service delivery, environmental regulations, role of public institutions (CGWB, DJB).

• Citizen rights and state responsibility in ensuring safe drinking water.

• GS Paper 3 – Environment, Ecology & Disaster Management

• Heavy metal contamination, environmental health hazards, pollution control, sustainable agriculture. Water security, groundwater depletion, climate-linked stress on water quality.

• Heavy metal contamination, environmental health hazards, pollution control, sustainable agriculture.

• Water security, groundwater depletion, climate-linked stress on water quality.

#### UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 2 December 2025 Facts for Prelims (FFP)

The International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International IDEA)

Source: PIB

Subject: Polity

Context: India’s Chief Election Commissioner Gyanesh Kumar will assume the Chair ship of the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International IDEA) on December 3, 2025, in Stockholm.

About The International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International IDEA):

What it is?

• An intergovernmental organisation dedicated exclusively to supporting and strengthening democratic institutions, processes and norms worldwide.

Establishment: Founded in 1995 as a global platform for democracy support, with its headquarters in Stockholm, Sweden.

Membership:

• Started with 14 founding members including India, Norway, Spain, Australia and South Africa.

• Today has 35 member countries, with the US and Japan as observers.

• Holds UN General Assembly Observer Status since 2003.

Aim: To advance and safeguard sustainable democracy by generating comparative knowledge, strengthening electoral institutions, supporting reforms, and promoting rule of law, participation, and inclusion.

Core Functions:

• Knowledge Production: Research on elections, political parties, constitutions, governance and democratic innovations.

• Capacity Building: Training Election Management Bodies (EMBs), political parties and democratic institutions.

• Advocacy: Promoting global democratic standards and electoral integrity.

• Dialogue Convening: Facilitating international exchanges among policymakers, civil society and regional bodies.

• Technical Assistance: Advising countries on electoral reforms, institutional design and democratic resilience.

Significance:

• Only global intergovernmental organisation with a sole mandate to support democracy.

• Provides a “virtuous cycle” of research → capacity building → advocacy → policy reform.

• India’s chair ship enhances its global leadership in election management, sharing expertise from administering elections to 90+ crore voters.

Masala Bond

Source: TH

Subject: Economy

Context: The Enforcement Directorate has issued show-cause notices to Kerala CM, former Finance Ministry and KIIFB officials over alleged FEMA and RBI violations linked to KIIFB’s 2019 Masala Bond issuance.

About Masala Bond:

What is a Masala Bond?

Masala Bonds are rupee-denominated bonds issued overseas by Indian entities to raise funds, where the currency risk is borne by the investor, not the issuer.

Introduced in: First issued globally by IFC in 2014 (₹1,000 crore) and officially allowed by RBI in 2015 under its rupee-denominated bond framework.

Objective:

• To allow Indian corporates, NBFCs and infrastructure trusts to raise global capital in rupees.

• To reduce reliance on Foreign Currency borrowings (ECBs) and shift exchange rate risk to investors.

• To deepen offshore rupee markets and promote internationalisation of the Indian rupee.

Key Features:

• Rupee-denominated: Bonds priced in INR but subscribed overseas; redemption also paid in INR.

• Investor bears currency risk, unlike ECBs where Indian borrowers carry forex risk.

• Eligible issuers: Indian corporates, NBFCs, REITs, InvITs.

• Listing: Can be listed on global exchanges (e.g., London, Singapore).

• Use restrictions: Cannot be used for capital market investment, real estate (except affordable housing), land purchase, or FDI-prohibited sectors.

• Minimum maturity: Initially 5 years, later reduced to 3 years.

• Tax incentives: 5% withholding tax on interest; capital gains from rupee appreciation exempt.

Benefits of Masala Bonds:

• Reduced currency risk for Indian issuers and improved cost of borrowing versus domestic bonds.

• Diversifies funding sources and attracts a wider pool of global investors.

• Boosts infrastructure financing, especially for states and large PSUs.

• Strengthens global confidence in the Indian rupee and supports its internationalisation.

Sanchar Saathi App

Source: NDTV

Subject: Government Scheme

Context: The Department of Telecommunications (DoT) has mandated that all smartphones sold from March 2026 must come with the Sanchar Saathi app pre-installed.

About Sanchar Saathi App:

• What it is? Sanchar Saathi is a telecom security and citizen-protection platform offering tools to report fraud, check SIM misuse, and block stolen devices.

• Sanchar Saathi is a telecom security and citizen-protection platform offering tools to report fraud, check SIM misuse, and block stolen devices.

• Developed by: Department of Telecommunications (DoT), Government of India.

• Aim: To safeguard mobile users by enabling identity management, fraud reporting, device verification, and enhancing awareness on telecom and cyber risks.

• Key Features: Fraud & Scam Reporting: Chakshu tool enables reporting of fake KYC alerts, impersonation scams, phishing links and suspicious WhatsApp/SMS messages. SIM & Identity Protection: Users can check all SIMs/ mobile connections linked to their identity to detect unauthorised usage. Lost/Stolen Phone Blocking: Allows IMEI blocking of lost or stolen devices; more than 7 lakh devices recovered since launch. Device Authenticity Verification: Helps confirm whether a handset’s IMEI is genuine or blacklisted, crucial for India’s large second-hand phone market. Reporting Illegally Masked International Calls: Users can report cases where foreign calls appear as +91 numbers, aiding anti-fraud investigations. Reporting Spam & Malicious Links: Enables reporting of telemarketing spam, unsafe APKs, phishing websites and fraudulent apps. Additional Utilities: Local ISP locator, trusted helpline directory, updated awareness material on telecom security.

• Fraud & Scam Reporting: Chakshu tool enables reporting of fake KYC alerts, impersonation scams, phishing links and suspicious WhatsApp/SMS messages.

• SIM & Identity Protection: Users can check all SIMs/ mobile connections linked to their identity to detect unauthorised usage.

• Lost/Stolen Phone Blocking: Allows IMEI blocking of lost or stolen devices; more than 7 lakh devices recovered since launch.

• Device Authenticity Verification: Helps confirm whether a handset’s IMEI is genuine or blacklisted, crucial for India’s large second-hand phone market.

• Reporting Illegally Masked International Calls: Users can report cases where foreign calls appear as +91 numbers, aiding anti-fraud investigations.

• Reporting Spam & Malicious Links: Enables reporting of telemarketing spam, unsafe APKs, phishing websites and fraudulent apps.

• Additional Utilities: Local ISP locator, trusted helpline directory, updated awareness material on telecom security.

• Significance: Strengthens India’s defence against digital fraud, impersonation scams and mobile theft, which affect millions yearly. Helps curb circulation of tampered or cloned IMEIs, a major security threat cited by DoT. Protects buyers in the second-hand mobile market by verifying stolen/blacklisted devices.

• Strengthens India’s defence against digital fraud, impersonation scams and mobile theft, which affect millions yearly.

• Helps curb circulation of tampered or cloned IMEIs, a major security threat cited by DoT.

• Protects buyers in the second-hand mobile market by verifying stolen/blacklisted devices.

Polygamy in India

Source: IE

Subject: Miscellaneous

Context: Assam has passed the Assam Prohibition of Polygamy Bill, 2025, becoming the second state after Uttarakhand to ban polygamy.

About Polygamy in India:

What it is?

• Polygamy refers to a marital system where one person has more than one spouse at the same time. In India, it is regulated differently across religions, states, and tribal customs.

Historical Context:

• Traditionally practiced in several communities, polygamy was restricted over time through religion-specific reforms — e.g., the Hindu Marriage Act (1955) outlawed bigamy for Hindus.

• Muslim personal law historically permitted up to four wives; tribal groups followed customary practices recognized by the Constitution.

Laws Governing:

• Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs – Bigamy prohibited under the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955; second marriages deemed void.

• Parsis – Prohibited under Parsi Marriage & Divorce Act, 1936.

• Christians – Prohibited under the Indian Christian Marriage Act, 1872.

• Muslims – Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Act, 1937 allows Muslim men to have up to four wives; hence not criminal under BNS Section 82.

• Goa – Under the Portuguese Civil Code, monogamy is the rule for all; a unique historical clause allows a Hindu man a second marriage under rare conditions (unused since 1910).

• Tribal Groups – Exempt under the Constitution (Fifth & Sixth Schedule); customary laws prevail.

Recent State-Level Bans:

• Uttarakhand UCC (2024): Outlaws bigamy for all residents except Scheduled Tribes.

• Assam Bill (2025): Makes polygamy a cognisable, non-bailable offence; penalties up to 7–10 years; bars convicts from government jobs and elections; tribal areas exempt.

Significance:

• Reflects push toward gender justice and uniform legal standards in marriage.

• Tests the legal boundary between personal law autonomy and legislative reform.

• Raises questions on minority rights, state powers, and the future trajectory of UCC in India.

India Re-Elected to UNESCO Executive Board for 2025–29

Source: News on Air

Subject: International Relations

Context: India has been re-elected to the UNESCO Executive Board for the 2025–29 term, reaffirming global confidence in its leadership in multilateral governance.

About India Re-Elected to UNESCO Executive Board for 2025–29:

• What the UNESCO Executive Board Is? The Executive Board is one of UNESCO’s three constitutional organs responsible for supervising programme implementation and providing strategic direction to the organisation.

• The Executive Board is one of UNESCO’s three constitutional organs responsible for supervising programme implementation and providing strategic direction to the organisation.

• Established In: UNESCO was created in 1945, and the Executive Board became its core governing body soon after the Constitution came into force in 1946.

• Headquarters: UNESCO and its Executive Board operate from Paris, France.

• Composition and Membership: The Board consists of 58 Member States each elected for a four-year term by the General Conference. Members are selected through regional electoral groups to ensure equitable representation.

• The Board consists of 58 Member States each elected for a four-year term by the General Conference.

• Members are selected through regional electoral groups to ensure equitable representation.

• Mandate and Functions:

• Examines UNESCO’s programme of work and the corresponding budget submitted by the Director-General. Prepares and submits recommendations for the agenda of the General Conference. Makes recommendations regarding admission of new Member States. Advises on the appointment of the Director-General. Supervises execution of programmes adopted by the General Conference. Convenes international conferences related to education, science, culture and knowledge dissemination.

• Examines UNESCO’s programme of work and the corresponding budget submitted by the Director-General.

• Prepares and submits recommendations for the agenda of the General Conference.

• Makes recommendations regarding admission of new Member States.

• Advises on the appointment of the Director-General.

• Supervises execution of programmes adopted by the General Conference.

• Convenes international conferences related to education, science, culture and knowledge dissemination.

• Significance of India’s Re-Election:

• Reinforces India’s global standing as a champion of inclusive, human-centric development. Enables India to shape UNESCO priorities in areas such as education reform, digital inclusion, cultural heritage protection, climate-science cooperation and media literacy.

• Reinforces India’s global standing as a champion of inclusive, human-centric development.

• Enables India to shape UNESCO priorities in areas such as education reform, digital inclusion, cultural heritage protection, climate-science cooperation and media literacy.

50th anniversary of the Biological Weapons Convention

Source: MEA

Subject: International Relations

Context: India hosted the international conference “50 Years of BWC: Strengthening Biosecurity for the Global South” in New Delhi to mark the 50th anniversary of the Biological Weapons Convention’s entry into force.

About 50th anniversary of the Biological Weapons Convention:

What the BWC is?

• The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) is the world’s first multilateral disarmament treaty banning an entire category of weapons of mass destruction.

• It prohibits the development, production, stockpiling, acquisition, transfer and use of biological and toxin weapons.

Established In:

• Opened for signature: 10 April 1972 (London, Moscow, Washington)

• Entered into force: 26 March 1975

• India is a founding State Party and one of the 189 signatories committed to full compliance.

Key Features of the Biological Weapons Convention:

• Core Prohibitions (Articles I–III):

• No development, stockpiling, or use of biological and toxin weapons. Obligation to destroy existing stockpiles.

• No development, stockpiling, or use of biological and toxin weapons.

• Obligation to destroy existing stockpiles.

• No Verification Mechanism:

• A major limitation: BWC lacks a formal verification regime to check compliance. Past violations include Soviet Union and Iraq.

• A major limitation: BWC lacks a formal verification regime to check compliance.

• Past violations include Soviet Union and Iraq.

• Review Conferences: Held roughly every five years to update norms, address technological advances and strengthen global governance.

• International Cooperation (Article X): Promotes peaceful use of biological science, especially capacity building for developing countries.

• Global Norm Against Bioweapons: Today no state openly acknowledges possessing or seeking biological weapons, reflecting strong normative acceptance.

• Political, Not Legal, Enforcement Mechanisms: Complaints mechanism exists (Article VI) but rarely used.

Significance:

• The BWC remains the primary global bulwark against biological weapons.

• Rapid advances in AI, synthetic biology, gene editing, gain-of-function research pose new risks requiring updated oversight.

• The Global South faces greater vulnerabilities—weak infrastructure, disease burden, limited biosafety systems—making BWC reforms crucial.

#### UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 2 December 2025 Mapping:

Paraná Valles

Source: Phy

Subject: Mapping

Context: Scientists have, for the first time, mapped large river drainage systems on Mars, identifying 16 major ancient basins—including Paraná Valles.

About Paraná Valles:

What it is?

• Paraná Valles is one of Mars’ major ancient fluvial drainage systems, formed by networks of valleys, streams and sedimentary channels carved by flowing water billions of years ago.

• It is considered one of the strongest geological indicators that Mars once had rainfall and sustained surface runoff.

Located In:

• Situated in the southern hemisphere of Mars.

• Lies within the region of Margaritifer Terra, an area rich in valley networks and past water-related landforms.

• The drainage system covers a large-scale watershed, comparable to large river basins on Earth.

Formation:

• Formed by flowing liquid water, likely during Mars’ early warm and wetter climate.

• Created through rainfall-fed runoff, erosion and sediment transport over long periods.

• Water likely flowed through interconnected valleys, lakes and channels, eventually draining into larger canyon systems or possibly an ancient Martian Ocean.

Key Features:

• Branching valley network indicating dendritic (tree-like) river patterns similar to terrestrial rivers.

• Contains streams, lakes, canyons and sediment deposits that confirm long-term fluvial activity.

• Represents a large drainage basin exceeding 100,000 sq km—the threshold for large river systems on Earth.

• Shows evidence of erosion, nutrient transport, and prolonged water–rock interaction.

Significance:

• One of the best-preserved Martian landscapes showing past hydrology.

• High potential site for finding biosignatures, because large drainage systems transport nutrients—key for microbial life.

• Helps scientists reconstruct Mars’ ancient climate, supporting theories that the planet once had rainfall and stable water bodies.

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